BOOK XII.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF TREES.

CHAP. 1.—THE HONOURABLE PLACE OCCUPIED BY TREES IN THE SYSTEM OF NATURE.

Such, then, is the history, according to their various species and

their peculiar conformations, of all the animals within the compass

of our knowledge. It now remains for us to speak of the vegetable

productions of the earth, which are equally far from being destitute

of a vital spirit,[416] (for, indeed, nothing can live without it),

that we may then proceed to describe the minerals extracted from

it, and so none of the works of Nature may be passed by in silence.

Long, indeed, were these last bounties of hers concealed beneath the

ground, the trees and forests being regarded as the most valuable

benefits conferred by Nature upon mankind. It was from the forest that

man drew his first aliment, by the leaves of the trees was his cave

rendered more habitable, and by their bark was his clothing supplied;

even at this very day,[417] there are nations that live under similar

circumstances to these. Still more and more, then, must we be struck

with wonder and admiration, that from a primæval state such as this, we

should now be cleaving the mountains for their marbles, visiting the

Seres[418] to obtain our clothing, seeking the pearl in the depths of

the Red Sea, and the emerald in the very bowels of the earth. For our

adornment with these precious stones it is that we have devised those

wounds which we make in our ears; because, forsooth, it was deemed not

enough to carry them on our hands, our necks, and our hair, if we did

not insert them in our very flesh as well. It will be only proper,

then, to follow the order of human inventions, and to speak of the

trees before treating of other subjects; thus may we trace up to their

very origin the manners and usages of the present day.

CHAP. 2. (1.)—THE EARLY HISTORY OF TREES.

The trees formed the first temples of the gods, and even at the

present day, the country people, preserving in all their simplicity

their ancient rites, consecrate the finest among their trees to some

divinity;[419] indeed, we feel ourselves inspired to adoration, not

less by the sacred groves and their very stillness, than by the statues

of the gods, resplendent as they are with gold and ivory. Each kind of

tree remains immutably consecrated to its own peculiar divinity, the

beech[420] to Jupiter,[421] the laurel to Apollo, the olive to Minerva,

the myrtle to Venus, and the poplar to Hercules: besides which, it is

our belief that the Sylvans, the Fauns, and various kinds of goddess

Nymphs, have the tutelage of the woods, and we look upon those deities

as especially appointed to preside over them by the will of heaven. In

more recent times, it was the trees that by their juices, more soothing

even than corn, first mollified the natural asperity of man; and it is

from these that we now derive the oil of the olive that renders the

limbs so supple, the draught of wine that so efficiently recruits the

strength, and the numerous delicacies which spring up spontaneously

at the various seasons of the year, and load our tables with their

viands—tables to replenish which, we engage in combat with wild beasts,

and seek for the fishes which have fattened upon the dead corpse of the

shipwrecked mariner—indeed, it is only at the second[422] course, after

all, that the produce of the trees appears.

But, in addition to this, the trees have a thousand other uses, all

of which are indispensable to the full enjoyment of life. It is by

the aid of the tree that we plough the deep, and bring near to us far

distant lands; it is by the aid of the tree, too, that we construct our

edifices. The statues, even, of the deities were formed of the wood

of trees, in the days when no value had been set as yet on the dead

carcase[423] of a wild beast, and when, luxury not yet deriving its

sanction from the gods themselves, we had not to behold, resplendent

with the same ivory, the heads of the divinities[424] and the feet of

our tables. It is related that the Gauls, separated from us as they

were by the Alps, which then formed an almost insurmountable bulwark,

had, as their chief motive for invading Italy, its dried figs, its

grapes, its oil, and its wine, samples[425] of which had been brought

back to them by Helico, a citizen of the Helvetii, who had been staying

at Rome, to practise there as an artizan. We may offer some excuse,

then, for them, when we know that they came in quest of these various

productions, though at the price even of war.

CHAP. 3.—EXOTIC TREES. WHEN THE PLANE-TREE FIRST APPEARED IN ITALY, AND

WHENCE IT CAME.

But who is there that will not, with good reason, be surprised to learn

that a tree has been introduced among us from a foreign clime for

nothing but its shade? I mean the plane,[426] which was first brought

across the Ionian Sea to the Isle[427] of Diomedes, there to be planted

at his tomb, and was afterwards imported thence into Sicily, being

one of the very first exotic trees that were introduced into Italy.

At the present day, however, it has penetrated as far as the country

of the Morini, and occupies even a tributary[428] soil; in return for

which those nations have to pay a tax for the enjoyment of its shade.

Dionysius the Elder, one of the tyrants of Sicily, had plane-trees

conveyed to the city of Rhegium, where they were looked upon as the

great marvel of his palace, which was afterwards converted into a

gymnasium. These trees did not, however, in that locality, attain any

very great height. I find it also stated by some authors, that there

were some other instances, in those days even, of plane-trees being

found in Italy, and I find some mentioned by name as existing in

Spain.[429]

CHAP. 4.—THE NATURE OF THE PLANE-TREE.

This circumstance took place about the time of the capture of the

City of Rome; and to such high honour, in the course of time, did the

plane-tree attain, that it was nurtured by pouring wine upon it, it

being found that the roots were greatly strengthened by doing[430] so.

Thus have we taught the very trees, even, to be wine-bibbers!

CHAP. 5.—REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH THE PLANE-TREE.

The first plane-trees that were spoken of in terms of high admiration

were those which adorned the walks of the Academy[431] at Athens—[in

one of which], the roots extended a distance of thirty-three cubits,

and spread far beyond its branches. At the present day, there is a

very famous plane in Lycia, situate in close proximity to a fountain

of the most refreshing coolness; standing near the road, with the

cavity in its interior, it forms a species of house eighty-one feet

in width. Its summit, too, presents the foliage of a grove, while

it shields itself with huge branches, each of which would equal an

ordinary tree in size, as it throws its lengthened shade across the

fields. In addition to this, that nothing may be wanting to its exact

resemblance to a grotto, there is a circle of seats within, formed of

stone, intermingled with pumice overgrown with moss. This tree was

looked upon as so worthy of remark, that Licinius Mucianus, who was

three times consul, and recently the legatus of that province, thought

it a circumstance deserving of transmission even to posterity, that

he, together with eighteen persons of his retinue, had sat down to a

banquet in the interior of it. Its leaves afforded material for their

couches in the greatest abundance, while he himself, sheltered from

every gust of wind, and trying in vain to hear the pattering of the

rain on the leaves, took his meal there, and enjoyed himself more than

he would have done amid the resplendence of marble, a multiplicity of

paintings, and beneath a cieling refulgent with gold.

Another curious instance, again, was that afforded in the reign of the

Emperor Caius.[432] That prince was so struck with admiration on seeing

a plane in the territory of Veliternum, which presented floor after

floor, like those of the several stories of a house, by means of broad

benches loosely laid from branch to branch, that he held a banquet

in it—himself adding[433] very materially to the shade it threw—the

triclinium being formed for the reception of fifteen guests and the

necessary attendants: to this singular dining-room he gave the name of

his “nest.”

At Gortyna, in the Isle of Crete, there is, in the vicinity of a

fountain there, a single plane-tree, which has been long celebrated

in the records of both the Greek and the Latin language: it never

loses[434] its leaves, and from an early period one of the fabulous

legends of Greece has been attached to it, to the effect that it was

beneath this tree that Jupiter lay with Europa; just as if there had

not been another tree of a similar nature in the island of Cyprus.

Slips of the tree at Gortyna—so fond is man by nature of novelty—were

at an early period planted at different places in Crete, and reproduced

the natural imperfections of the tree;[435] though, indeed, there is

no higher recommendation in the plane than the fact that in summer

it protects us from the rays of the sun, while in winter it admits

them. In later times, during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, a

Thessalian eunuch, the freedman of Marcellus Æserninus,[436] who,

however, from motives of ambition had enrolled himself in the number

of the freedmen of the emperor, and had acquired very considerable

wealth, introduced this plane into Italy, in order to beautify his

country-seat: so that he may not inappropriately be styled a second

Dionysius. These monstrosities of other lands are still to be seen in

Italy, independently of those which that country has herself devised.

CHAP. 6. (2.)—THE CHAMÆPLATANUS. WHO WAS THE FIRST TO CLIP GREEN SHRUBS.

For we find in Italy some plane-trees, which are known as

chamæplatani,[437] in consequence of their stunted growth; for we

have discovered the art of causing abortion in trees even, and hence,

even in the vegetable world we shall have occasion to make mention

of dwarfs, an unprepossessing subject in every case. This result is

obtained in trees, by a peculiar method adopted in planting and lopping

them. C. Matius,[438] a member of the Equestrian order, and a friend of

the late Emperor Augustus, invented the art of clipping arbours, within

the last eighty years.

CHAP. 7. (3.)—HOW THE CITRON IS PLANTED.

The cherry and the peach, and all those trees which have either Greek

or foreign names, are exotics: those, however, of this number, which

have begun to be naturalized among us, will be treated of when I come

to speak of the fruit-trees in general. For the present, I shall

only make mention of the really exotic trees, beginning with the one

that is applied to the most salutary uses. The citron tree, called

the Assyrian, and by some the Median apple, is an antidote against

poisons.[439] The leaf is similar to that of the arbute, except that it

has small prickles[440] running across it. As to the fruit, it is never

eaten,[441] but it is remarkable for its extremely powerful smell,

which is the case, also, with the leaves; indeed, the odour is so

strong, that it will penetrate clothes, when they are once impregnated

with it, and hence it is very useful in repelling the attacks of

noxious insects. The tree bears fruit at all seasons of the year; while

some is falling off, other fruit is ripening, and other, again, just

bursting into birth. Various nations have attempted to naturalize this

tree among them, for the sake of its medical properties, by planting

it in pots of clay, with holes drilled in them, for the purpose of

introducing the air to the roots; and I would here remark, once for

all, that it is as well to remember that the best plan is to pack

all slips of trees that have to be carried to any distance, as close

together as they can possibly be placed. It has been found, however,

that this tree will grow nowhere[442] except in Media or Persia. It

is this fruit, the pips of which, as we have already mentioned,[443]

the Parthian grandees employ in seasoning their ragouts, as being

peculiarly conducive to the sweetening of the breath. We find no other

tree very highly commended that is produced in Media.

CHAP. 8. (4.)—THE TREES OF INDIA.

In describing the country of the Seres, we have already made

mention[444] of the wool-bearing trees which it produces; and we have,

likewise, touched[445] upon the extraordinary magnitude of the trees of

India. Virgil[446] has spoken in glowing terms of the ebony-tree, one

of those which are peculiar to India, and he further informs us, that

it will grow in no other country. Herodotus, however, has preferred to

ascribe[447] it to Æthiopia; and states that the people of that country

were in the habit of paying to the kings of Persia, every third year,

by way of tribute,[448] one hundred billets of ebony-wood, together

with a certain quantity of gold and ivory. Nor ought we here to omit

the fact, inasmuch as the same author has stated to that effect, that

the Æthiopians were also in the habit of paying, by way of tribute,

twenty large elephants’ teeth. So high was the esteem in which ivory

was held in the year from the building of our city, 310: for it was

at that period[449] that this author was compiling his History at

Thurii, in Italy; which is all the more remarkable, from the implicit

confidence we place in him, when he says[450] that up to that time, no

native of Asia or Greece, to his knowledge at least, had ever beheld

the river Padus. The plan of Æthiopia, which, as we have already

mentioned,[451] was recently laid before the Emperor Nero, informs

us, that this tree is very uncommon in the country that lies between

Syene, the extreme boundary of the empire, and Meroë, a distance of

eight hundred and ninety-six miles; and that, in fact, the only kind of

tree that is to be found there, is the palm. It was, probably, for this

reason, that ebony held the third place in the tribute that was thus

imposed.

CHAP. 9.—WHEN EBONY WAS FIRST SEEN AT ROME. THE VARIOUS KINDS OF EBONY.

Pompeius Magnus displayed ebony on the occasion of his triumph over

Mithridates. Fabianus declares, that this wood will give out no

flame; it burns, however, with a very agreeable smell. There are two

kinds[452] of ebony; the rarest kind is the best, and is produced

from a tree that is singularly free from knots. The wood is black and

shining, and pleasing to the eye, without any adventitious aid from

art. The other kind of ebony is the produce of a shrub which resembles

the cytisus, and is to be found scattered over the whole of India.

CHAP. 10. (5.)—THE INDIAN THORN.

There is in India, also, a kind of thorn[453] very similar to ebony,

though it may be distinguished from it, by the aid of a lantern even;

for, on the application of flame, it will instantly run across the

tree. We will now proceed to describe those trees which were the

admiration of Alexander the Great in his victorious career, when that

part of the world was first revealed by his arms.

CHAP. 11.—THE INDIAN FIG.

The Indian fig[454] bears but a small fruit. Always growing

spontaneously, it spreads far and wide with its vast branches, the

ends of which bend downwards into the ground to such a degree, that

they take fresh root in the course of a year, and thus form a new

plantation around the parent stock, traced in a circular form, just

as though it had been the work of the ornamental gardener. Within the

bowers thus formed, the shepherds take up their abode in the summer,

the space occupied by them being, at once, overshadowed and protected

by the bulwark which the tree thus throws around; a most graceful

sight, whether we stand beneath and look upwards, or whether we view

its arcaded foliage from a distance. The higher branches, however,

shoot upwards to a very considerable height, and, by their number,

form quite a grove, springing aloft from the vast trunk of the parent

tree, which overspreads, very frequently, a space of sixty paces in

extent, while the shade that is thrown by it will cover as much as a

couple of stadia. The broad leaves of the tree have just the shape of

an Amazonian buckler; and hence it is that the fruit, from being quite

covered by the leaves, is greatly impeded in its growth. The fruit,

indeed, of this tree is but scanty, and never exceeds a bean in size;

being ripened, however, by the rays of the sun, as these penetrate the

leaves, the figs are remarkable for their singular lusciousness, and

are quite worthy of the marvellous tree by which they are produced.

These fig-trees are found, more particularly, in the vicinity of the

river Acesines.[455]

CHAP. 12. (6.)—THE PALA: THE FRUIT CALLED ARIENA.

There is another tree[456] in India, of still larger size, and even

more remarkable for the size and sweetness of its fruit, upon which the

sages[457] of India live. The leaf of this tree resembles, in shape,

the wing of a bird, being three cubits in length, and two in breadth.

It puts forth its fruit from the bark, a fruit remarkable for the

sweetness of its juice, a single one containing sufficient to satisfy

four persons. The name of this tree is “pala,” and of the fruit,

“ariena.” They are found in the greatest abundance in the country of

the Sydraci,[458] a territory which forms the extreme limit of the

expedition of Alexander.

There is another[459] tree, also, very similar to this, but bearing

a still sweeter fruit, though very apt to cause derangement of the

bowels. Alexander issued strict orders, forbidding anyone in the

expedition to touch this fruit.

CHAP. 13.—INDIAN TREES, THE NAMES OF WHICH ARE UNKNOWN. INDIAN TREES

WHICH BEAR FLAX.

The Macedonians[460] have made mention of various other kinds of

trees, the greater part of which, however, are without names. There

is one which resembles the terebinth[461] in every respect, except

the fruit, which is very similar to the almond, though less in size,

and remarkable for its extreme sweetness. This tree was met with in

Bactria, and some persons looked upon it as a variety of the terebinth,

rather than as bearing a strong resemblance to it. As to the tree from

which they manufacture a kind of linen[462] cloth, in leaf it resembles

the mulberry-tree, while the calix of the fruit is similar to the

dog-rose.[463] This tree is reared in the plains, and there is no sight

throughout the cultivated parts of the country that is more enchanting

than the plantations of it.

CHAP. 14. (7.)—THE PEPPER-TREE.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF

PEPPER—BREGMA—ZINGIBERI, OR ZIMPIBERI.

The olive-tree[464] of India is unproductive, with the sole exception

of the wild olive. In every part we meet with trees that bear

pepper,[465] very similar in appearance to our junipers, although,

indeed, it has been alleged by some authors that they only grow on the

slopes of Caucasus which lie exposed to the sun. The seeds, however,

differ from those of the juniper, in being enclosed in small pods

similar to those which we see in the kidney-bean. These pods are picked

before they open, and when dried in the sun, make what we call “long

pepper.” But if allowed to ripen, they will open gradually, and when

arrived at maturity, discover the white pepper; if left exposed to

the heat of the sun, this becomes wrinkled, and changes its colour.

Even these productions, however, are subject to their own peculiar

infirmities, and are apt to become blasted by the inclemency of the

weather; in which case the seeds are found to be rotten, and mere

husks. These abortive seeds are known by the name of “bregma,” a word

which in the Indian language signifies “dead.” Of all the various kinds

of pepper, this is the most pungent, as well as the very lightest,

and is remarkable for the extreme paleness of its colour. That which

is black is of a more agreeable flavour; but the white pepper is of a

milder quality than either.

The root of this tree is not, as many persons have imagined, the same

as the substance known as zimpiberi, or, as some call it, zingiberi,

or ginger, although it is very like it in taste. For ginger, in fact,

grows in Arabia and in Troglodytica, in various cultivated spots, being

a small plant[466] with a white root. This plant is apt to decay very

speedily, although it is of intense pungency; the price at which it

sells is six denarii per pound. Long pepper is very easily adulterated

with Alexandrian mustard; its price is fifteen denarii per pound,

while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four. It is quite

surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing

that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness,

and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas,

pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either

fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency;

and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who

was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I

wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger

only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? Both pepper and ginger

grow wild in their respective countries, and yet here we buy them

by weight—just as if they were so much gold or silver. Italy,[467]

too, now possesses a species of pepper-tree, somewhat larger than the

myrtle, and not very unlike it. The bitterness of the grains is similar

to that which we may reasonably suppose to exist in the Indian pepper

when newly gathered; but it is wanting in that mature flavour which

the Indian grain acquires by exposure in the sun, and, consequently,

bears no resemblance to it, either in colour or the wrinkled appearance

of the seeds. Pepper is adulterated with juniper berries, which have

the property, to a marvellous degree, of assuming the pungency of

pepper. In reference to its weight, there are also several methods of

adulterating it.

CHAP. 15.—CARYOPHYLLON, LYCION, AND THE CHIRONIAN PYXACANTHUS.

There is, also, in India another grain which bears a considerable

resemblance to pepper, but is longer and more brittle; it is known by

the name of caryophyllon.[468] It is said that this grain is produced

in a sacred grove in India; with us it is imported for its aromatic

perfume. The same country produces, also, a thorny shrub, with

grains which bear a resemblance to pepper, and are of a remarkably

bitter taste. The leaves of this shrub are small, like those of the

cyprus;[469] the branches are three cubits in length, the bark pallid,

and the roots wide-spreading and woody, and of a colour resembling that

of boxwood. By boiling this root with the seed in a copper vessel, the

medicament is prepared which is known by the name of lycion.[470] This

thorny shrub grows, also, on Mount Pelion;[471] this last kind is much

used for the purpose of adulterating the medicament above mentioned.

The root of the asphodel, ox-gall, wormwood, sumach, and the amurca of

olive oil, are also employed for a similar purpose. The best lycion

for medicinal purposes, is that which has a froth on its surface; the

Indians send it to us in leather bottles, made of the skin of the camel

or the rhinoceros. The shrub itself is known by some persons in Greece

under the name of the Chironian pyxacanthus.[472]

CHAP. 16. (8.)—MACIR.

Macir,[473] too, is a vegetable substance that is brought from India,

being a red bark that grows upon a large root, and bears the name of

the tree that produces it; what the nature of this tree is, I have not

been able to ascertain. A decoction of this bark, mixed with honey, is

greatly employed in medicine, as a specific for dysentery.

CHAP. 17.—SUGAR.

Arabia, too, produces sugar;[474] but that of India is the most

esteemed. This substance is a kind of honey, which collects in reeds,

white, like gum, and brittle to the teeth. The larger pieces are about

the size of a filbert; it is only employed, however, in medicine.

CHAP. 18.—TREES OF ARIANA, GEDROSIA, AND HYRCANIA.

On the frontiers of India is a country called Ariana, which produces

a thorny shrub,[475] rendered precious by the tears which it distils.

It bears some resemblance to myrrh, but is very difficult of access,

by reason of the thorns with which it is armed. Here, too, a poisonous

shrub is found, with a root like the radish,[476] and leaves like those

of the laurel. By its powerful odour it attracts horses, and was very

nearly depriving Alexander of all his cavalry upon his first arrival

there, an accident which also happened in Gedrosia. A thorny shrub[477]

has been also spoken of as a native of the same country, with leaves

like those of the laurel, the juice of which, if sprinkled upon the

eyes, is productive of blindness in all animals. Another plant is

also mentioned, with a most remarkable odour, and full of diminutive

serpents,[478] the sting of which is sure to cause instant death.

Onesicritus states, that in the vallies of Hyrcania, there is a tree

resembling the fig, and known as the occhus,[479] from which a honey

distils for two hours every morning.

CHAP. 19. (9.)—TREES OF BACTRIANA, BDELLIUM, OR BROCHON, OTHERWISE

MALACHA, OR MALDACON, SCORDASTUM. ADULTERATIONS USED IN ALL SPICES AND

AROMATICS; THE VARIOUS TESTS OF THEM AND THEIR RESPECTIVE VALUES.

In the vicinity, too, of India, is Bactriana, in which region we find

bdellium,[480] that is so highly esteemed. This tree is of a black

colour, and about the size of the olive; it has leaves like those of

the robur, and bears a fruit similar to that of the wild fig, and

in nature resembling a kind of gum. This fruit is by some persons

called brochon, by others malacha, and by others, again, maldacon.

When of a black colour, and rolled up in cakes, it bears the name of

hadrobolon. This substance ought to be transparent and the colour of

wax, odoriferous, unctuous when subjected to friction, and bitter

to the taste, though without the slightest acidity. When used for

sacred purposes, it is steeped in wine, upon which it emits a still

more powerful odour. The tree is a native of both India and Arabia,

as well as Media and Babylon; some persons give to the bdellium that

is imported by way of Media, the name of peraticum.[481] This last is

remarkable for its brittleness, while, at the same time, it is harder

and more bitter than the other kinds; that of India, on the other

hand, is moister, and gummy. This last sort is adulterated by means

of almonds, while the various other kinds are falsified with the bark

of scordastum, that being the name of a tree[482] the gum of which

strongly resembles bdellium. These adulterations, however, are to be

detected—and let it suffice to mention it here, in relation to all

other perfumes as well—by the smell, the colour, the weight, the taste,

and the action of fire. The bdellium of Bactriana is shining and dry,

and covered with numerous white spots resembling the finger-nails;

besides which, it should be of a certain weight, heavier or lighter

than which it ought not to be. The price of bdellium, in its pure

state, is three denarii per pound.

CHAP. 20.—TREES OF PERSIS.

Adjoining the countries which we have previously mentioned is Persis,

lying along the shores of the Red Sea, which, when describing[483] it,

we have mentioned as the Persian Sea, the tides of which penetrate far

into the land. The trees in these regions are of a marvellous nature;

for, corroded by the action of the salt, and bearing a considerable

resemblance to vegetable substances that have been thrown up and

abandoned by the tide, they are seen to embrace the arid sands of

the sea-shore with their naked roots, just like so many polypi. When

the tide rises, buffeted by the waves, there they stand, fixed and

immoveable; nay, more, at high water they are completely covered; a

fact which proves to conviction, that they derive their nutriment from

the salt contained in the water. The size of these trees is quite

marvellous; in appearance they strongly resemble the arbute; the fruit,

which on the outside is very similar to the almond, has a spiral kernel

within.[484]

CHAP. 21. (10.)—TREES OF THE ISLANDS OF THE PERSIAN SEA. THE COTTON

TREE.

In the same gulf, there is the island of Tylos,[485] covered with a

forest[486] on the side which looks towards the East, where it is

washed also by the sea at high tides. Each of the trees is in size as

large as the fig; the blossoms are of an indescribable sweetness, and

the fruit is similar in shape to a lupine, but so rough and prickly,

that it is never touched by any animal. On a more elevated plateau

of the same island, we find trees that bear wool, but of a different

nature from those of the Seres;[487] as in these trees the leaves

produce nothing at all, and, indeed, might very readily be taken for

those of the vine, were it not that they are of smaller size. They

bear a kind of gourd, about the size of a quince;[488] which, when

arrived at maturity, bursts asunder and discloses a ball of down, from

which a costly kind of linen cloth is made.

(11.) This tree is known by the name of gossypinus:[489] the smaller

island of Tylos, which is ten miles distant from the larger one,

produces it in even greater abundance.

CHAP. 22.—THE TREE CALLED CYNA. TREES FROM WHICH FABRICS FOR CLOTHING

ARE MADE IN THE EAST.

Juba states, that about a certain shrub there grows a woolly down, from

which a fabric is manufactured, preferable even to those of India. He

adds, too, that certain trees of Arabia, from which vestments are made,

are called cynæ, and that they have a leaf similar to that of the palm.

Thus do their very trees afford clothing for the people of India. In

the islands of Tylos, there is also another tree, with a blossom like

the white violet[490] in appearance, though four times as large, but it

is destitute of smell, a very remarkable fact in these climates.

CHAP. 23.—A COUNTRY WHERE THE TREES NEVER LOSE THEIR LEAVES.

There is also another tree similar to the preceding one, but with a

thicker foliage, and a blossom like the rose. This flower shuts[491] at

night, and, beginning to open towards sun-rise, appears in full blow

by mid-day; the natives are in the habit of saying that in this way

it goes to sleep. The same island bears also the palm, the olive, the

vine, and the fig, with various other kinds of fruit. None of the trees

in this island lose their leaves;[492] it is abundantly watered by cool

streams, and receives the benefit of rain.

CHAP. 24.—THE VARIOUS USEFUL PRODUCTS OF TREES.

Arabia, which is in the vicinity of these islands, requires that we

should make some distinction in its vegetable products, seeing that

here the various parts of trees which are employed for useful purposes

are the root, the branches, the bark, the juices, the gum, the wood,

the shoots, the blossoms, the leaves, and the fruit.

CHAP. 25. (12.)—COSTUS.

A root and a leaf, however, are the productions which are held in the

very highest estimation in India. The root is that of the costus;[493]

it has a burning taste in the mouth, and a most exquisite odour; in

other respects, the branches are good for nothing. In the island of

Patale,[494] situate at the very mouth of the river Indus, there

are two kinds of costus found, the black and the white; the last is

considered the best. The price of it is five denarii per pound.

CHAP. 26.—NARD. THE TWELVE VARIETIES OF THE PLANT.

Of the leaf, which is that of the nard,[495] it is only right to

speak somewhat more at length, as it holds the principal place among

our unguents. The nard is a shrub with a heavy, thick root, but

short, black, brittle, and yet unctuous as well; it has a musty

smell, too, very much like that of the cyperus, with a sharp, acrid

taste, the leaves being small, and growing in tufts. The heads of the

nard spread out into ears; hence it is that nard is so famous for

its two-fold production, the spike or ear, and the leaf. There is

another kind, again, that grows on the banks of the Ganges, but is

altogether condemned, as being good for nothing; it bears the name of

ozænitis,[496] and emits a fetid odour. Nard is adulterated with a sort

of plant called pseudo-nard,[497] which is found growing everywhere,

and is known by its thick, broad leaf, and its sickly colour, which

inclines to white. It is sophisticated, also, by being mixed with the

root of the genuine nard, which adds very considerably to its weight.

Gum is also used for the same purpose, antimony, and cyperus; or, at

least, the outer coat of the cyperus. Its genuineness is tested by its

lightness, the redness of its colour, its sweet smell, and the taste

more particularly, which parches the mouth, and leaves a pleasant

flavour behind it; the price of spikenard is one hundred denarii per

pound.

Leaf[498] nard varies in price according to the size; for that which

is known by the name of hadrosphærum, consisting of the larger leaves,

sells at forty denarii per pound; when the leaves are smaller, it is

called mesosphærum, and is sold at sixty. But that which is considered

the most valuable of all, is known as microsphærum, and consists of

the very smallest of the leaves; it sells at seventy-five denarii per

pound. All these varieties of nard have an agreeable odour, but it is

most powerful when fresh. If the nard is old when gathered, that which

is of a black colour is considered the best.

In our part of the world, the Syrian[499] nard is held in the next

highest esteem next to this; then the Gallic;[500] and in the

third place, that of Crete,[501] which by some persons is called

“agrion,” and by others “phu.” This last has exactly the leaf of the

olusatrum,[502] with a stalk a cubit in length, knotted, of a whitish

colour, inclining to purple, and a root that runs sideways; it is

covered, too, with long hair, and strongly resembles the foot of a

bird. Field nard is known by the name of baccar.[503] We shall have

further occasion to mention it when we come to speak of the flowers.

All these kinds of nard, however, are to be reckoned as herbs, with

the exception of Indian nard. Of these, the Gallic kind is pulled up

along with the root, and washed in wine; after which it is dried in

the shade, and wrapped up in paper, in small parcels. It is not very

different from the Indian nard, but is lighter than that of Syria;

the price at which it sells is three denarii per pound. The only way

of testing the leaves of all these varieties of nard, is to see that

they are not brittle and parched, instead of being dried naturally

and gradually. Together with the nard that grows in Gaul, there

always[504] springs up a herb, which is known by the name of hirculus,

or the “little goat,” on account of its offensive smell, it being very

similar to that of the goat. This herb, too, is very much used in the

adulteration of nard, though it differs from it in the fact that it has

no stem, and its leaves are smaller; the root, too, is not bitter, and

is entirely destitute of smell.

CHAP. 27. (13.)—ASARUM, OR FOAL-FOOT.

The herb asarum,[505] too, has the properties of nard, and, indeed,

by some persons is known as wild nard. It has a leaf, however, more

like that of the ivy, only that it is rounder and softer. The flower is

purple, the root very similar to that of the Gallic nard, and the seed

is like a grape. It is of a warm and vinous flavour, and blossoms twice

a year, growing upon hill sides that are densely shaded. The best kind

is that found in Pontus, and the next best that of Phrygia; that of

Illyricum being only of third-rate quality. The root is dug up when it

is just beginning to put forth its leaves, and then dried in the sun.

It very soon turns mouldy, and loses its properties. There has, also,

been lately found a certain herb in some parts of Greece, the leaves of

which do not differ in the slightest degree from those of the Indian

nard.

CHAP. 28.—AMOMUM.—AMOMIS.

The clustered amomum[506] is very extensively used; it grows upon a

kind of wild vine that is found in India, though some persons have

been of opinion that it is borne by a shrub, resembling the myrtle in

appearance, and about the same height as the palm. This plant, also,

is plucked along with the root, and is carefully pressed together with

the hands; for it very soon becomes brittle. That kind is held in the

highest esteem, the leaves of which bear a strong resemblance to those

of the pomegranate, being free from wrinkles, and of a red colour.

The second quality is that which is of a pallid hue. That which has a

green, grassy appearance, is not so good, and the white is the worst of

all; it assumes this appearance when old. The price of clustered amomum

is sixty denarii per pound, but in dust it sells at only forty-nine.

Amomum is produced, also, in that part of Armenia which is known as

Otene; as, also, in Media and Pontus. It is adulterated with the leaves

of the pomegranate and a solution of gum, which is employed in order

to make the leaves adhere and form clusters, like those of the grape.

There is another substance, also, which is known by the name of

amomis;[507] it is not so full of veins as amomum, harder, and not so

odoriferous; from which it would appear, either that it is altogether a

different plant, or else that it is amomum gathered in an unripe state.

CHAP. 29.—CARDAMOMUM.

Similar to these substances, both in name as well as the shrub which

produces it, is the cardamomum,[508] the seeds of which are of an

oblong shape. It is gathered in the same manner both in India and

Arabia. There are four different kinds of cardamomum. That which is of

a very green colour, unctuous, with sharp angles, and very difficult

to break, is the most highly esteemed of all. The next best is of a

reddish white tint, while that of third-rate quality is shorter and

blacker, the worst of all being mottled and friable, and emitting but

little smell; which, in its genuine[509] state ought to be very similar

to costum. Cardamomum grows also in Media. The price of the best is

three denarii per pound.

CHAP. 30.—THE COUNTRY OF FRANKINCENSE.

Next in affinity to cardamomum would have been cinnamomum,[510] and

this we should have now proceeded to speak of, were it not more

convenient first to make mention of the treasures of Arabia, and the

reasons for which that country has received the names of “Happy” and

“Blest.” The chief productions of Arabia are frankincense and myrrh,

which last it bears in common with the country of the Troglodytæ.

(14.) There is no country in the world that produces frankincense

except Arabia,[511] and, indeed, not the whole of that. Almost in the

very centre of that region, are the Atramitæ,[512] a community of the

Sabæi, the capital of whose kingdom is Sabota, a place situate on

a lofty mountain. At a distance of eight stations from this is the

incense-bearing region, known by the name of Saba. The Greeks say that

the word signifies a “secret mystery.” This district looks towards

the north-east, and is rendered inaccessible by rocks on every side,

while it is bounded on the right by the sea, from which it is shut

out by cliffs of tremendous height. The soil of this territory is

said to be of a milky white, a little inclining to red. The forests

extend twenty schœni in length, and half that distance in breadth. The

length of the schœnus, according to the estimate of Eratosthenes, is

forty stadia, or, in other words, five miles; some persons, however,

have estimated the schœnus at no more than thirty-two stadia. In this

district some lofty hills take their rise, and the trees, which spring

up spontaneously, run downwards along the declivities to the plains. It

is generally agreed that the soil is argillaceous, and that the springs

which there take their rise are but few in number, and of a nitrous

quality. Adjoining are the Minæi, the people of another community,

through whose country is the sole transit for the frankincense, along a

single narrow road. The Minæi were the first people who carried on any

traffic in frankincense, which they still do to a greater extent than

any other persons, and hence it is that it has received the appellation

of “Minæan.” It is the Sabæi alone, and no other people among the

Arabians, that behold the incense-tree; and, indeed, not all of them,

for it is said that there are not more than three thousand families

which have a right to claim that privilege, by virtue of hereditary

succession; and that for this reason those persons are called sacred,

and are not allowed, while pruning the trees or gathering the harvest,

to receive any pollution, either by intercourse with women, or coming

in contact with the dead; by these religious observances it is that

the price of the commodity is so considerably enhanced. Some persons,

however, say, that the right of gathering incense in the forests

belongs to all these people in common, while others again state, that

they take their turns year by year.

CHAP. 31.—THE TREES THAT BEAR FRANKINCENSE.

Nor is it by any means agreed what is the appearance of the

incense-tree. We have sent several expeditions against Arabia, and

the Roman arms have penetrated into the greater part of that country;

indeed, Caius Cæsar,[513] the son of Augustus, even earned considerable

renown there; and yet this tree has been described by no Latin writer,

at least that I know of. The descriptions given of it by the Greek

writers vary very considerably: some of them say that it has exactly

the leaf of the pear-tree, only somewhat smaller, and of a grass-green

colour. Others, again, say, that it has a rather reddish leaf, like

that of the mastich, and others, that it is a kind of terebinth,[514]

and that King Antigonus, to whom a branch of it was brought, was of

that opinion. King Juba, in the work which he wrote and dedicated to

Caius Cæsar, the son of Augustus, who was inflamed by the wide-spread

renown of Arabia, states, that the tree has a spiral stem, and that

the branches bear a considerable resemblance to those of the Pontic

maple, while it secretes a sort of juice very similar to that of the

almond-tree. Such, he says, is the appearance of the tree as seen in

Carmania and Egypt, where it was introduced and planted under the

auspices of the Ptolemies when reigning there. It is well known that

it has a bark not unlike that of the laurel, and, indeed, some persons

have asserted that their leaves are similar. At all events, such was

the case with the tree as it grew at Sardes: for the kings of Asia also

took considerable care to have it planted there. The ambassadors who

in my time have come to Rome from Arabia, have made all these matters

more uncertain, even, than they were before; a thing at which we may

justly be surprised, seeing that some sprigs even of the incense-tree

have been brought among us, from which we have some reason to conclude

that the parent tree is round and tapering, and that it puts forth its

shoots from a trunk that is entirely free from knots.

CHAP. 32.—VARIOUS KINDS OF FRANKINCENSE.

In former times, when they had fewer opportunities of selling it, they

used to gather the frankincense only once a year; but at the present

day, as there is a much greater demand for it, there is a second crop

as well. The first, and what we may call the natural, vintage, takes

place about the rising of the Dog-star, a period when the heat is most

intense; on which occasion they cut the tree where the bark appears

to be the fullest of juice, and extremely thin, from being distended

to the greatest extent. The incision thus made is gradually extended,

but nothing is removed; the consequence of which is, that an unctuous

foam oozes forth, which gradually coagulates and thickens. When the

nature of the locality requires it, this juice is received upon mats

of palm-leaves, though in some places the space around the tree is

made hard by being well rammed down for the purpose. The frankincense

that is gathered after the former method, is in the purest state,

though that which falls on the ground is the heaviest in weight: that

which adheres to the tree is pared off with an iron instrument, which

accounts for its being found mingled with pieces of bark.

The forest is allotted in certain portions, and such is the mutual

probity of the owners, that it is quite safe from all depredation;

indeed, there is no one left to watch the trees after the incisions

are made, and yet no one is ever known to plunder his neighbour. But,

by Hercules! at Alexandria, where the incense is dressed for sale, the

workshops can never be guarded with sufficient care; a seal is even

placed upon the workmen’s aprons, and a mask put upon the head, or

else a net with very close meshes, while the people are stripped naked

before they are allowed to leave work. So true it is that punishments

afford less security among us than is to be found by these Arabians

amid their woods and forests! The incense which has accumulated during

the summer is gathered in the autumn: it is the purest of all, and

is of a white colour. The second gathering takes place in spring,

incisions being made in the bark for that purpose during the winter:

this, however, is of a red colour, and not to be compared with the

other incense. The first, or superior kind of incense, is known as

carfiathum,[515] the latter is called dathiathum. It is thought, also,

that the incense which is gathered from the tree while young is the

whitest, though the produce of the old trees has the most powerful

smell; some persons, too, have an impression that the best incense is

found in the islands, but Juba asserts that no incense at all is grown

there.

That incense which has hung suspended in globular drops is known to us

as “male” frankincense, although it is mostly the case that we do not

use the term “male” except in contradistinction to the word “female:”

it has been attributed, however, to religious scruples, that the name

of the other sex was not employed as a denomination for this substance.

Some persons, again, are of opinion that the male frankincense has been

so called from its resemblance[516] to the testes of the male. The

incense, however, that is the most esteemed of all is that which is

mammose, or breast-shaped, and is produced when one drop has stopped

short, and another, following close upon it, has adhered, and united

with it. I find it stated that one of these lumps used to make quite a

handful, at a time when men displayed less eagerness to gather it, and

it was allowed more time to accumulate. The Greeks call such lumps as

these by the name of stagonia[517] and atomus,[518] while the smaller

pieces are called orobia.[519] The fragments which are broken off by

shaking the tree are known to us as manna.[520] Even at the present

day, however, there are drops found which weigh one-third of a mina,

or, in other words, twenty-eight denarii. Alexander the Great, when

a boy, was on one occasion loading the altars with frankincense with

the greatest prodigality, upon which his tutor Leonides[521] remarked

to him that it would be time to worship the gods in such a lavish

manner as that, when he had conquered the countries that produced the

frankincense. After Alexander had conquered Arabia, he despatched

to Leonides a ship freighted with frankincense, and sent him word,

requesting that he would now worship the gods without stint or limit.

The incense, after being collected, is carried on camels’ backs

to Sabota,[522] at which place a single gate is left open for its

admission. To deviate from the high road while conveying it, the laws

have made a capital offence. At this place the priests take by measure,

and not by weight, a tenth part in honour of their god, whom they call

Sabis;[523] indeed, it is not allowable to dispose of it before this

has been done: out of this tenth the public expenses are defrayed,

for the divinity generously entertains all those strangers who have

made a certain number of days’ journey in coming thither. The incense

can only be exported through the country of the Gebanitæ, and for

this reason it is that a certain tax is paid to their king as well.

Thomna,[524] which is their capital, is distant from Gaza, a city of

Judæa, on the shores of our sea, 4436[525] miles, the distance being

divided into sixty-five days’ journey by camel. There are certain

portions also of the frankincense which are given to the priests and

the king’s secretaries: and in addition to these, the keepers of it,

as well as the soldiers who guard it, the gate-keepers, and various

other employes, have their share as well. And then besides, all along

the route, there is at one place water to pay for, at another fodder,

lodging at the stations, and various taxes and imposts besides; the

consequence of which is, that the expense for each camel before it

arrives at the shores of our[526] sea is six hundred and eighty-eight

denarii; after all this, too, there are certain payments still to be

made to the farmers of the revenue of our empire. Hence it is that a

pound of the best frankincense sells at six denarii, the second quality

five, and the third three. Among us, it is adulterated with drops of

white resin, a substance which bears a strong resemblance to it: but

the fraud may be easily detected by the methods which have been already

mentioned.[527] It is tested by the following qualities; its whiteness,

size, brittleness, and the readiness with which it takes fire when

placed on heated coals; in addition to which, it should not give to the

pressure of the teeth, but from its natural brittleness crumble all to

pieces.

CHAP. 33. (15.)—MYRRH.

According to some authors, myrrh[528] is the produce of a tree that

grows in the same forests as the incense-tree, though most say that

they grow in different places: but the fact is that myrrh grows in many

parts of Arabia, as will be seen when we come to speak of the several

varieties of it. A sort that is highly esteemed is brought from the

islands[529] also, and the Sabæi even cross the sea to procure it in

the country of the Troglodytæ. It is grown also by being transplanted,

and when thus cultivated is greatly preferred to that which is grown in

the forests. The plant is greatly improved by raking and baring the

roots; indeed, the cooler the roots are kept, the better it is.

CHAP. 34.—THE TREES WHICH PRODUCE MYRRH.

The tree grows to the height of five cubits, and has thorns upon

it: the trunk is hard and spiral, and thicker than that of the

incense-tree, and much more so at the root than at the upper part of

the tree. Some authors have said that the bark is smooth like that of

the arbute, others, that it is rough and covered with thorns: it has

the leaf of the olive, but more wavy, with sharp points at the edges:

Juba says, however, that it resembles the leaf of the olusatrum. Some

again say that it resembles the juniper,[530] only that it is rougher

and bristling with thorns, and that the leaves are of a rounder shape,

though they have exactly the taste of the juniper. There have been some

writers who have incorrectly asserted that both myrrh and frankincense

are the product of the same tree.

CHAP. 35.—THE NATURE AND VARIOUS KINDS OF MYRRH.

Incisions are made in the myrrh-tree also twice a year, and at the same

season as in the incense-tree; but in the case of the myrrh-tree they

are all made the way up from the root as far as the branches which are

able to bear it. The tree spontaneously exudes, before the incision

is made, a liquid which bears the name of stacte,[531] and to which

there is no myrrh that is superior. Second only in quality to this is

the cultivated myrrh: of the wild or forest kind, the best is that

which is gathered in summer. They give no tithes of myrrh to the god,

because it is the produce of other countries as well; but the growers

pay the fourth part of it to the king of the Gebanitæ. Myrrh is bought

up indiscriminately by the common people, and then packed into bags;

but our perfumers separate it without any difficulty, the principal

tests of its goodness being its unctuousness and its aromatic smell.

(16.) There are several[532] kinds of myrrh; the first among the wild

myrrhs is the Troglodytic; and the next are the Minæan, which includes

the Atramitic, and that of Ausaritis, in the kingdom of the Gebanitæ.

A third kind is the Dianitic,[533] and a fourth is the mixed myrrh,

or “all-sorts;”[534] a fifth, again, is the Sambracenian, which is

brought from a city in the kingdom of the Sabæi, near the sea; and a

sixth is known by the name of Dusaritic. There is a white myrrh also,

which is produced in only one spot, and is carried for sale to the city

of Messalum. The Troglodytic myrrh is tested by its unctuousness, and

its peculiarly dry appearance: it has also a dirty, rough look with

it, but is more acrid than the other kinds. The Sambracenian myrrh has

none of these faults, and is more sightly in appearance than any of

them, though it is far from being so powerful. In general, however, the

proof of its goodness consists in its being separated in little pieces

of uneven shape, formed by the concretion of a whitish juice, which

dries up little by little. When broken it ought to exhibit white marks

like the finger-nails, and to be slightly bitter to the taste. That

of second quality is of a mottled appearance within; while of worse

quality is that which is of a black colour within; the very worst of

all is that which is black on the outside as well.

The price of myrrh varies according to the number of purchasers.

Stacte is sold at prices which vary from three denarii to forty per

pound, while the very highest price of the cultivated myrrh is eleven

denarii. Erythræan myrrh, the same, it is pretended, as Arabian myrrh,

is sixteen denarii per pound, Troglodytic also, is sixteen denarii;

and that known as odoraria, or odoriferous myrrh, sells at fourteen.

Myrrh is adulterated with pieces of mastich, and other gums; it is also

drugged with the juice of wild cucumber, in order to produce a certain

bitterness, and with litharge for the purpose of increasing its weight.

Other sophistications may be discovered on tasting it, and the gum will

adhere to the teeth. But the cleverest mode of adulterating it is with

Indian myrrh,[535] a substance which is gathered from a certain prickly

shrub which grows there. This is the only thing that India produces of

worse quality than the corresponding produce of other countries: they

may, however, be very easily distinguished, that of India being so very

much inferior.

CHAP. 36. (17.)—MASTICH.

The transition, therefore,[536] is very easy to mastich, which grows

upon another prickly shrub of India and Arabia, known by the name of

laina. Of mastich as well there are two different kinds; for in Asia

and Greece there is also found a herb which puts forth leaves from the

root, and bears a thistly head, resembling an apple, and full of seeds.

Upon an incision being made in the upper part of this plant drops

distil from it, which can hardly be distinguished from the genuine

mastich. There is, again, a third sort,[537] found in Pontus, but more

like bitumen than anything else. The most esteemed, however, of all

these, is the white mastich of Chios, the price of which is twenty

denarii per pound, while the black mastich sells at twelve. It is said

that the mastich of Chios exudes from the lentisk in the form of a sort

of gum: like frankincense, it is adulterated with resin.

CHAP. 37.—LADANUM AND STOBOLON.

Arabia, too, still boasts of her ladanum.[538] Many writers have

stated that this substance is the fortuitous result of an accidental

injury inflicted upon a certain odoriferous plant, under the following

circumstances: the goat, they say, which is in general an animal that

is extremely mischievous to foliage, is particularly fond of the shrubs

that are odoriferous, as if, indeed, it were really sensible of the

value that is set upon them. Hence it is that as the animal crops the

sprouting shoots of the branches which are swollen with a liquid juice

of remarkable sweetness, these juices drop and become mingled together,

and are then wiped up by the shaggy hairs of its unlucky beard. Being

there mingled with the dust, these juices form knots and tufts, and

are then dried by the sun; and hence the circumstance is accounted for

that in the ladanum which is imported by us we find goats’ hairs. This,

however, we are told, occurs nowhere but among the Nabatæi,[539] a

people of Arabia, who border upon Syria. The more recent writers call

this substance by the name of stobolon, and state that in the forests

of Arabia the trees are broken by the goats while browzing, and that

the juices in consequence adhere to their shaggy hair; but the genuine

ladanum, they assure us, comes from the island of Cyprus. I make

mention of this in order that every kind of odoriferous plant may be

taken some notice of, even though incidentally and not in the order of

their respective localities. They say also that this Cyprian ladanum

is collected in the same manner as the other, and that it forms a kind

of greasy substance or œsypum,[540] which adheres to the beards and

shaggy legs of the goats; but that it is produced from the flowers of

the ground-ivy, which they have nibbled when in quest of their morning

food, a time at which the whole island is covered with dew. After this,

they say, when the fogs are dispersed by the sun, the dust adheres to

their wet coats, and the ladanum is formed, which is afterwards taken

off of them with a comb.

There are some authors who give to the plant of Cyprus, from which it

is made, the name of leda; and hence it is that we find it also called

ledanum. They say, also, that a viscous substance settles upon this

plant, and, that, by the aid of strings wound around it, its leaves

are rolled into balls, from which a kind of cake is made. Hence it is,

that in Cyprus, as well as in Arabia, there are two kinds of ladanum;

the one natural, and mingled with earth, and the other artificial: the

former is friable, while the latter is of a viscous nature.

It is stated, also, that this substance is the produce of a shrub

originally found in Carmania, and propagated by plants, by order of

the Ptolemies, in the parts beyond Egypt; while other authorities are

found, which say that it grows on the incense tree, and is gathered

like gum, from incisions made in the bark, after which it is collected

in bags of goat-skin. That of the most approved quality, sells at the

rate of forty asses per pound. Ladanum is adulterated with myrtle

berries, and filth taken from the fleeces of other animals besides the

goat. If genuine, it ought to have a wild and acrid smell, in some

measure redolent of the desert places where it is produced: it is dry

and parched in appearance, but becomes soft the moment it is touched.

When ignited, it gives a brilliant flame, and emits a powerful but

pleasant odour; if mixed with myrtle berries, its spurious quality is

immediately discovered by their crackling in the fire. In addition to

this, the genuine ladanum has more grits, or stony particles, adhering

to it, than dust.

CHAP. 38.—ENHÆMON.

In Arabia, too, the olive-tree distils a sort of tear, with which

the Indians make a medicament, known by the Greeks as enhæmon;[541]

it is said to be of wonderful efficacy in contracting and healing

wounds and sores. These trees,[542] situate on the coasts there, are

covered by the sea at high water, without the berries suffering the

slightest injury, although it is a well-known fact, that the salt

collects upon the leaves. All these trees are peculiar to Arabia,

but it has some few besides, in common with other countries, of which

we shall make mention elsewhere, the kinds growing in Arabia being of

inferior quality. The people of that country have a wonderful regard

for the perfumes of foreign parts, and import them from places at a

considerable distance; so soon are men sated with what they have of

their own, and so covetous are they of what belongs to others.

CHAP. 39.—THE TREE CALLED BRATUS.

Hence it is, that they import from the country of the Elymæi[543] the

wood of a tree called bratus,[544] which is similar in appearance to

a spreading cypress. Its branches are of a whitish colour, and the

wood, while burning, emits a pleasant odour; it is highly spoken of by

Claudius Cæsar, in his History,[545] for its marvellous properties. He

states that the Parthians sprinkle the leaves of it in their drink,

that its smell closely resembles that of the cedar, and that the smoke

of it is efficacious in counteracting the effects of smoke emitted

by other wood. This tree grows in the countries that lie beyond the

Pasitigris,[546] in the territory of the city of Sittaca, upon Mount

Zagrus.

CHAP. 40.—THE TREE CALLED STOBRUM.

The Arabians import from Carmania also the wood of a tree called

stobrum,[547] which they employ in fumigations, by steeping it in

palm wine, and then setting fire to it. The odour first ascends to

the ceiling, and then descends in volumes to the floor; it is very

agreeable, but is apt to cause an oppression of the head, though

unattended with pain; it is used for promoting sleep in persons when

ill. For these branches of commerce, they have opened the city of

Carræ,[548] which serves as an entrepot, and from which place they

were formerly in the habit of proceeding to Gabba, at a distance of

twenty days’ journey, and thence to Palæstina, in Syria. But at a

later period, as Juba informs us, they began to take the road, for

the purposes of this traffic, to Charax[549] and the kingdom of the

Parthians. For my own part, it would appear to me that they were in the

habit of importing these commodities among the Persians, even before

they began to convey them to Syria or Egypt; at least Herodotus bears

testimony to that effect, when he states that the Arabians paid a

yearly tribute of one thousand talents, in frankincense, to the kings

of Persia.

From Syria they bring back storax,[550] which, burnt upon the hearth,

by its powerful smell dispels that loathing of their own perfumes with

which these people are affected. For in general there are no kinds of

wood in use among them, except those which are odoriferous; indeed, the

Sabæi are in the habit of cooking their food with incense wood, while

others, again, employ that of the myrrh tree; and hence, the smoke and

smells that pervade their cities and villages are no other than the

very same which, with us, proceed from the altars. For the purpose of

qualifying this powerful smell, they burn storax in goat-skins, and

so fumigate their dwellings. So true it is, that there is no pleasure

to be found, but what the continual enjoyment of it begets loathing.

They also burn this substance to drive away the serpents, which are

extremely numerous in the forests which bear the odoriferous trees.

CHAP. 41. (18.)—WHY ARABIA WAS CALLED “HAPPY.”

Arabia produces neither cinnamon nor cassia; and this is the country

styled “Happy” Arabia! False and ungrateful does she prove herself

in the adoption of this surname, which she would imply to have been

received from the gods above; whereas, in reality, she is indebted

for it far more to the gods below.[551] It is the luxury which is

displayed by man, even in the paraphernalia of death, that has rendered

Arabia thus “happy;” and which prompts him to burn with the dead what

was originally understood to have been produced for the service of the

gods. Those who are likely to be the best acquainted with the matter,

assert that this country does not produce, in a whole year, so large a

quantity of perfumes as was burnt by the Emperor Nero at the funeral

obsequies of his wife Poppæa. And then let us only take into account

the vast number of funerals that are celebrated throughout the whole

world each year, and the heaps of odours that are piled up in honour

of the bodies of the dead; the vast quantities, too, that are offered

to the gods in single grains; and yet, when men were in the habit of

offering up to them the salted cake, they did not show themselves any

the less propitious; nay, rather, as the facts themselves prove, they

were even more favourable to us than they are now. But it is the sea of

Arabia that has even a still greater right to be called “happy,” for it

is this that furnishes us with pearls. At the very lowest computation,

India, the Seres, and the Arabian Peninsula, withdraw from our empire

one hundred millions of sesterces every year—so dearly do we pay for

our luxury and our women. How large a portion, too, I should like to

know, of all these perfumes, really comes to the gods of heaven, and

the deities of the shades below?

CHAP. 42. (19.)—CINNAMOMUM.[552] XYLOCINNAMUM.

Fabulous antiquity, and Herodotus[553] more particularly, have related

that cinnamomum and cassia are found in the nests of certain birds, and

principally that of the phœnix, in the districts where Father Liber was

brought up; and that these substances either fall from the inaccessible

rocks and trees in which the nests are built, in consequence of the

weight of the pieces of flesh which the birds carry up, or else are

brought down by the aid of arrows loaded with lead. It is said, also,

that cassia grows around certain marshes, but is protected by a

frightful kind of bat armed with claws, and by winged serpents as well.

All these tales, however, have been evidently invented for the purpose

of enhancing the prices of these commodities. Another story, too, bears

them company, to the effect that under the rays of the noon-day sun,

the entire peninsula exhales a certain indescribable perfume composed

of its numerous odours; that the breezes, as they blow from it, are

impregnated with these odours, and, indeed, were the first to announce

the vicinity of Arabia to the fleets of Alexander the Great, while

still far out at sea. All this, however, is false; for cinnamomum,

or cinnamum, which is the same thing, grows in the country of the

Æthiopians,[554] who are united by intermarriages with the Troglodytæ.

These last, after buying it of their neighbours, carry it over vast

tracts of sea, upon rafts, which are neither steered by rudder, nor

drawn or impelled by oars or sails. Nor yet are they aided by any of

the resources of art, man alone, and his daring boldness, standing

in place of all these; in addition to which, they choose the winter

season, about the time of the equinox, for their voyage, for then a

south easterly wind is blowing; these winds guide them in a straight

course from gulf to gulf, and after they have doubled the promontory

of Arabia, the north east wind carries them to a port of the Gebanitæ,

known by the name of Ocilia.[555] Hence it is that they steer for this

port in preference; and they say that it is almost five years before

the merchants are able to effect their return, while many perish on the

voyage. In return for their wares, they bring back articles of glass

and copper, cloths, buckles, bracelets, and necklaces; hence it is that

this traffic depends more particularly upon the capricious tastes and

inclinations of the female sex.

The cinnamon shrub[556] is only two cubits in height, at the most, the

lowest being no more than a palm in height. It is about four fingers

in breadth, and hardly has it risen six fingers from the ground,

before it begins to put forth shoots and suckers. It has then all the

appearance of being dry and withered, and while it is green it has no

odour at all. The leaf is like that of wild marjoram, and it thrives

best in dry localities, being not so prolific in rainy weather; it

requires, also, to be kept constantly clipped. Though it grows on level

ground, it thrives best among tangled brakes and brambles, and hence

it is extremely difficult to be gathered. It is never gathered unless

with the permission of the god, by whom some suppose Jupiter to be

meant; the Æthiopians, however, call him Assabinus.[557] They offer the

entrails of forty-four oxen, goats, and rams, when they implore his

permission to do so, but after all, they are not allowed to work at it

before sunrise or after sunset. A priest divides the branches with a

spear, and sets aside one portion of them for the god; after which, the

dealer stores away the rest in lumps. There is another account given,

which states that a division is made between the gatherers and the

sun, and that it is divided into three portions, after which lots are

twice drawn, and the share which falls to the sun is left there, and

forthwith ignites spontaneously.

The thinnest parts in the sticks, for about a palm in length, are

looked upon as producing the finest cinnamon; the part that comes next,

though not quite so long, is the next best, and so on downwards. The

worst of all is that which is nearest the roots, from the circumstance

that in that part there is the least bark, the portion that is the most

esteemed: hence it is that the upper part of the tree is preferred,

there being the greatest proportion of bark there. As for the wood, it

is held in no esteem at all, on account of the acrid taste which it

has, like that of wild marjoram; it is known as xylocinnamum.[558] The

price of cinnamomum is ten denarii per pound. Some writers make mention

of two kinds of cinnamon, the white and the black: the white was the

one that was formerly preferred, but now, on the contrary, the black is

held in the highest estimation, and the mottled, even, is preferred to

the white. The most certain test, however, of the goodness of cinnamon

is its not being rough, and the fact that the pieces when rubbed

together do not readily crumble to powder. That which is soft is more

particularly rejected, which is the case, also, when the outer bark too

readily falls off.

The right of regulating the sale of the cinnamon belongs solely

to the king of the Gebanitæ, who opens the market for it by public

proclamation. The price of it was formerly as much as a thousand

denarii per pound; which was afterwards increased to half as much

again, in consequence, it is said, of the forests having been set

on fire by the barbarians, from motives of resentment; whether this

took place through any injustice exercised by those in power, or only

by accident, has not been hitherto exactly ascertained. Indeed, we

find it stated by some authors, that the south winds that prevail in

these parts are sometimes so hot as to set the forests on fire. The

Emperor Vespasianus Augustus was the first to dedicate in the temples

of the Capitol and the goddess Peace chaplets of cinnamon inserted in

embossed[559] gold. I, myself, once saw in the temple of the Palatium,

which his wife Augusta[560] dedicated to her husband the late emperor

Augustus, a root of cinnamon of great weight, placed in a patera of

gold: from it drops used to distil every year, which congealed in hard

grains. It remained there until the temple was accidentally destroyed

by fire.

CHAP. 43.—CASSIA.

Cassia[561] is a shrub also, which grows not far from the plains where

cinnamon is produced, but in the mountainous localities; the branches

of it are, however, considerably thicker, than those of cinnamon. It

is covered with a thin skin rather than a bark, and, contrary to what

is the case with cinnamon, it is looked upon as the most valuable when

the bark falls off and crumbles into small pieces. The shrub is three

cubits in height, and the colours which it assumes are threefold:

when it first shoots from the ground, for the length of a foot, it is

white; after it has attained that height, it is red for half a foot,

and beyond that it is black. This last is the part that is held in the

highest esteem, and next to it the portion that comes next, the white

part being the least valued of all. They cut the ends of the branches

to the length of two fingers, and then sew them in the fresh skins

of cattle that have been killed expressly for the purpose; the object

being that the skins may putrefy, and the maggots generated thereby

may eat away the woody parts, and so excavate[562] the bark; which

is so intensely bitter, that it is quite safe from their attacks.

That which is the freshest is the most highly esteemed; it has a very

delicate smell, and is so extremely hot to the taste, that it may be

said to burn the tongue, rather than gradually warm the mouth. It is

of a purple colour, and though of considerable volume, weighs but very

little in comparison; the outer coat forms into short tubes which are

by no means easily broken: this choice kind of cassia, the barbarians

call by the name of lada. There is another sort, again, which is

called balsamodes,[563] because it has a smell like that of balsam,

but it is bitter; for which reason it is more employed for medicinal

purposes, just as the black cassia is used for unguents. There is no

substance known that is subject to greater variations in price: the

best qualities sell at fifty denarii per pound, others, again, at five.

(20.) To these varieties the dealers have added another, which they

call daphnoides,[564] and give it the surname of isocinnamon;[565]

the price at which it sells is three hundred denarii per pound. It is

adulterated with storax, and, in consequence of the resemblance of

the bark, with very small sprigs of laurel. Cassia is also planted in

our[566] part of the world, and, indeed, at the extreme verge of the

Empire, on the banks of the river Rhenus, where it flourishes when

planted in the vicinity of hives of bees. It has not, however, that

scorched colour which is produced by the excessive heat of the sun; nor

has it, for the same reason, a similar smell to that which comes from

the south.

CHAP. 44.—CANCAMUM AND TARUM.

From the confines of the country which produces cinnamon and cassia,

cancamum[567] and tarum[568] are imported; but these substances are

brought by way of the Nabatæan Troglodytæ, a colony of the Nabatæi.

CHAP. 45. (21.)—SERICHATUM AND GABALIUM.

Thither, too, are carried serichatum[569] and gabalium, aromatics

which the Arabians rear for their own consumption, and which are only

known by name in our part of the world, though they grow in the same

country as cinnamon and cassia. Still, however, serichatum does reach

us occasionally, and is employed by some persons in the manufacture of

unguents. It is purchased at the rate of six denarii per pound.

CHAP. 46.—MYROBALANUM.

In the country of the Troglodytæ, the Thebais, and the parts of Arabia

which separate Judæa from Egypt, myrobalanum[570] is commonly found; it

is provided by Nature for unguents, as from its very name would appear.

From its name, also, it is evident that it is the nut of a tree, with

a leaf similar to that of the heliotropium, which we shall have to

mention when speaking of the herbs. The fruit of this tree is about the

size of a filbert. The kind that grows in Arabia is known as Syriaca,

and is white, while, on the other hand, that which grows in the Thebais

is black: the former is preferred for the quality of the oil extracted

from it, though that which is produced in the Thebais yields it in

larger quantities. Among these various kinds, that which is sent from

the country of the Troglodytæ is the worst of all. There are some

persons who prefer that of Æthiopia[571] to all of these, the nut of

which is black, and not oleaginous; it has only a very small kernel,

but the liquid which is extracted from it is more odoriferous than

that of the other kinds; it grows, too, in a champaign, open country.

It is said that the Egyptian nut is even more oleaginous, being of a

reddish colour with a thicker shell, and that the plant, although it

grows in wet, marshy spots, is shorter and drier than the other kinds.

The Arabian nut, again, is said to be of a green colour and of smaller

size, but harder and more compact, from the circumstance that it grows

in mountainous districts. The best of all, however, is that of Petra,

which comes from a city mentioned[572] on a previous occasion; it has

a black shell, but the kernel is white. The perfumers, however, only

extract the juices from the shells; but medical men pound the kernels,

pouring warm water on them, little by little, as they do it.

CHAP. 47. (22.)—PHŒNICOBALANUS.

The fruit of the palm in Egypt, which is known by the name of

adipsos,[573] is put to a similar use in unguents, and is held next

in esteem after the myrobalanum. It is of a green colour, has exactly

the smell of a quince, and has no stone or nut within. It is gathered

a little before it begins to ripen. That which is left ungathered is

known as phœnicobalanus;[574] it turns black, and has a tendency to

inebriate the person who eats of it. The price of myrobalanum is two

denarii per pound. The shop-keepers give this name also to the dregs of

the unguent that is made with it.

CHAP. 48.—THE SWEET-SCENTED CALAMUS;[575] THE SWEET-SCENTED RUSH.

Scented calamus also, which grows in Arabia, is common to both India

and Syria, that which grows in the last country being superior to

all the rest. At a distance of one hundred and fifty stadia from the

Mediterranean, between Mount Libanus and another mountain of no note

(and not, as some have supposed, Antilibanus), there is a valley of

moderate size, situate in the vicinity of a lake, the marshy swamps of

which are dried up every summer. At a distance of thirty stadia from

this lake grow the sweet-scented calamus and rush. We shall here make

some further mention of this rush as well, although we have set apart

another Book for plants of that description, seeing that it is our

object here to describe all the different materials used for unguents.

These plants differ in appearance in no respect from others of their

kind; but the calamus, which has the more agreeable smell of the two,

attracts by its odour at a considerable distance, and is softer to the

touch than the other. The best is the kind which is not so brittle, but

breaks into long flakes, and not short, like a radish. In the hollow

stalk there is a substance like a cobweb, which is generally known by

the name of the “flower:” those plants which contain the most of it are

esteemed the best. The other tests of its goodness are its being of a

black colour—those which are white not being esteemed; besides which,

to be of the very best quality it should be short, thick, and pliant

when broken. The price of the scented calamus is eleven, and of the

rush fifteen denarii per pound. It is said that the sweet-scented rush

is to be met with also in Campania.

CHAP. 49.—HAMMONIACUM.

We have now departed from the lands which look towards the ocean to

enter upon those which have an aspect towards our seas. (23.) Africa,

which lies below Æthiopia, distils a tear-like gum in its sands, called

hammoniacum,[576] the name of which has passed to the oracle of Hammon,

situate near the tree which produces it. This substance, which is also

called metopion,[577] bears a strong resemblance to a resin or a gum.

There are two kinds of ammoniacum; that to which the name is given of

thrauston, and which bears a resemblance to male frankincense, being

the kind that is the most esteemed, and that which is known as phyrama,

being of an unctuous and resinous nature. This substance is adulterated

by means of sand, which has all the appearance of having adhered to

it during its growth: hence it is greatly preferred when the pieces

are extremely small, and in the purest state possible. The price of

hammoniacum of the best quality is forty asses per pound.

CHAP. 50.—SPHAGNOS.

Below these countries, and in the province of Cyrenaica, the perfume

called sphagnos[578] is found in the highest state of perfection: there

are some who call it by the name of bryon. The sphagnos of Cyprus

holds the second rank, and that of Phœnicia the third. It is said

that this plant is produced in Egypt also, and in Gaul as well, and I

see no reason to doubt that such is the fact, for this name is given

to certain white shaggy tufts upon trees, such as we often see upon

the quercus: those, however, of which we are speaking, emit a most

exquisite odour. The most esteemed of all are the whitest, and those

situate at the greatest height upon the tree. Those of second quality

are red, while those which are black are not of the slightest value.

The sphagnos, too, that is produced on islands and among rocks,[579] is

held in no esteem, as well as all those varieties which have the odour

of the palm-tree, and not that which is so peculiarly their own.

CHAP. 51.—CYPROS.

The cyprus[580] is a tree of Egypt, with the leaves of the

ziziphus,[581] and seeds like coriander,[582] white and odoriferous.

These seeds are boiled in olive oil, and then subjected to pressure;

the product is known to us as cypros. The price of it is five denarii

per pound. The best is that produced on the banks of the Nile, near

Canopus, that of second quality coming from Ascalon in Judæa, and the

third in estimation for the sweetness of its odour, from the island

of Cyprus. Some people will have it that this is the same as the tree

which in Italy we call ligustrum.[583]

CHAP. 52.—ASPALATHOS, OR ERYSISCEPTRUM.

In the same country,[584] too, grows aspalathos,[585] a white, thorny

shrub, the size of a moderate tree, and with flowers like the rose, the

root of which is in great request for unguents. It is said that every

shrub over which the rainbow is extended is possessed of the sweet

odour that belongs to the aspalathos, but that if the aspalathos is one

of them, its scent is something quite indescribable. Some persons call

this plant erysisceptrum,[586] and others, again, sceptrum. The proof

of its genuineness is its red or fiery colour; it is also compact to

the touch, and has the smell of castoreum:[587] it is sold at the rate

of five denarii per pound.

CHAP. 53.—MARON.

In Egypt, too, grows marum,[588] though of inferior quality to that of

Lydia, which last has larger leaves, covered with spots. Those of the

other are shorter and smaller, and give out a powerful scent.

CHAP. 54. (25.)—BALSAMUM; OPOBALSAMUM; AND XYLOBALSAMUM.

But to all other odours that of balsamum[589] is considered preferable,

a plant that has been only bestowed by Nature upon the land of Judæa.

In former times it was cultivated in two gardens only, both of which

belonged to the kings of that country: one of them was no more than

twenty jugera in extent, and the other somewhat smaller. The emperors

Vespasianus and Titus had this shrub exhibited at Rome; indeed, it

is worthy of signal remark, that since the time of Pompeius Magnus,

we have been in the habit of carrying trees even in our triumphal

processions. At the present day this tree pays us homage and tribute

along with its native land, but it has been found to be of altogether a

different nature to that which our own as well as foreign writers had

attributed to it: for, in fact, it bears a much stronger resemblance to

the vine than to the myrtle. This recent acquisition by conquest has

learned, like the vine, to be reproduced by mallet[590]-shoots, and it

covers declivities just like the vine, which supports its own weight

without the aid of stays. When it puts forth branches it is pruned in

a similar manner, and it thrives by being well raked at the roots,

growing with remarkable rapidity, and bearing fruit at the end of three

years. The leaf bears a very considerable resemblance to that of rue,

and it is an evergreen. The Jews vented their rage upon this shrub just

as they were in the habit of doing against their own lives and persons,

while, on the other hand, the Romans protected it; indeed, combats have

taken place before now in defence of a shrub. At the present day the

reproduction of it has become a duty of the fiscal authorities, and the

plants were never known to be more numerous or of larger growth; they

never exceed the height, however, of a couple of cubits.

There are three different kinds of balsamum. The first has a thin and

hair-like foliage, and is known by the name of eutheriston.[591] The

second is of a rugged appearance, bending downwards, full of branches,

and more odoriferous than the first; the name of this is trachy. The

third kind is the eumeces, so called, because it is taller than the

others; it has a smooth, even, bark. It is the second in quality,

the eutheriston being inferior to the trachy. The seed of this plant

has a flavour strongly resembling that of wine; it is of a reddish

colour, and not without a certain amount of unctuousness; the grains

of inferior quality are lighter in weight and of a greener hue: the

branches of the shrub are thicker than those of the myrtle. Incisions

are made in it either with glass, or else a sharp stone, or knives made

of bone: it being highly injurious to touch the vital parts with iron,

for in such case it will immediately wither away and die. On the other

hand, it will allow of all the superfluous branches being pruned away

with an instrument of iron even. The hand of the person who makes the

incision is generally balanced by an artificial guide, in order that he

may not accidentally inflict a wound in the wood beyond the bark.

A juice distils from the wound, which is known to us as opobalsamum;

it is of extraordinary sweetness,[592] but only exudes in tiny drops,

which are then collected in wool, and deposited in small horns. When

taken from out of these, the substance is placed in new earthen

vessels; it bears a strong resemblance to a thick oil, and is of

a white colour when fresh. It soon, however, turns red, and as it

hardens loses its transparency. When Alexander the Great waged war in

those parts, it was looked upon as a fair summer day’s work to fill a

single concha[593] with this liquid; the entire produce of the larger

garden being six congii, and of the smaller one a single congius; the

price, too, at which it was sold was double its weight in silver. At

the present day the produce of a single tree, even, is larger; the

incisions are made three times every summer, after which the tree is

pruned.

The cuttings, too, form an article of merchandize: the fifth year after

the conquest of Judæa, these cuttings, with the suckers, were sold

for the price of eight hundred thousand sesterces. These cuttings are

called xylobalsamum,[594] and are boiled down for mixing with unguents,

and in the manufactories have been substituted for the juices of the

shrub. The bark is also in great request for medicinal purposes, but it

is the tears that are so particularly valuable; the seed holding the

second rank in estimation, the bark the third, and the wood being the

least esteemed of all. Of the wood, that kind which resembles boxwood

is considered the best: it has also the strongest smell. The best seed

is that which is the largest in size and the heaviest in weight; it has

a biting or rather burning taste in the mouth. Balsamum is adulterated

with hypericon[595] from Petra, but the fraud is easily detected, from

the fact that the grains of the latter are larger, comparatively empty,

and longer than those of balsamum; they are destitute also of any

pungency of smell, and have a flavour like that of pepper.

As to the tears of balsamum, the test of their goodness is their

being unctuous to the touch, small, of a somewhat reddish colour, and

odoriferous when subjected to friction. That of second-rate quality is

white; the green and coarse is inferior, and the black is the worst of

all; for, like olive-oil, it is apt to turn rancid when old. Of all the

incisions, the produce is considered the best of those from which the

liquid has flowed before the formation of the seed. In addition to what

has been already stated, it is often adulterated with the juice of the

seed, and it is with considerable difficulty that the fraud is detected

by a slight bitterness in the taste, which ought to be delicate and

without the slightest mixture of acidity, the only pungency being that

of the smell. It is adulterated also with oil of roses, of cyprus,

of mastich, of balanus, of turpentine, and of myrtle, as also with

resin, galbanum, and Cyprian wax, just as occasion may serve. But the

very worst adulteration of all, is that which is effected with gum, a

substance which is dry when emptied into the hand, and falls to the

bottom when placed in water; both of which are characteristics of

the genuine commodity. Balsamum, in a genuine state, should be quite

hard, but when it is mixed with gum a brittle pellicle forms upon it.

The fraud can also be detected by the taste, and when placed upon hot

coals it may easily be seen if there has been any adulteration with

wax and resin; the flame too, in this case, burns with a blacker smoke

than when the balsamum is pure. When mixed with honey its qualities

are immediately changed, for it will attract flies even in the hand.

In addition to these various tests, a drop of pure balsamum, if placed

in luke-warm water will settle to the bottom of the vessel, whereas,

if it is adulterated, it will float upon the surface like oil, and

if it has been drugged with metopion or hammoniacum, a white circle

will form around it. But the best test of all is, that it will cause

milk to curdle, and leave no stain upon cloth. In no commodity are

there practised more palpable frauds than in this, for a sextarius

of balsamum which is sold by the fiscal authorities at three hundred

denarii, is sold again for a thousand, so vast is the profit to be

derived from increasing this liquid by sophistication. The price of

xylobalsamum is six denarii per pound.

CHAP. 55.—STORAX.

That part of Syria joining up to Judæa, and lying above Phœnicia,

produces storax, which is found in the vicinity of Gabala and

Marathus,[596] as also of Casius, a mountain of Seleucia. The tree[597]

bears the same name, and has a strong resemblance to, the quince. The

tear has a harsh taste, with a pleasant smell; in the interior it has

all the appearance of a reed, and is filled with a liquid juice. About

the rising of the Dog-star, certain small winged worms hover about

this substance and eat it away, for which reason it is often found

in a rotten state, with worm-holes full of dust. The storax next in

estimation after that already mentioned, comes from Pisidia, Sidon,

Cyprus, and Cilicia; that of Crete being considered the very worst of

all. That which comes from Mount Amanus, in Syria, is highly esteemed

for medicinal purposes, and even more so by the perfumers. From

whatever country it comes, that which is of a red colour is preferred,

and it should be both unctuous as well as viscous to the touch; the

worst kind is that which crumbles like bran, and is covered all over

with a whitish mould. This substance is adulterated with the resin of

cedar or with gum, and sometimes with honey or bitter almonds; all

which sophistications may, however, be detected by the taste. The price

of storax of the best quality is seventeen denarii per pound. It comes

also from Pamphylia, but this last is more arid, and not so full of

juice.

CHAP. 56.—GALBANUM.

Syria produces galbanum too, which grows upon the same mountain of

Amanus: it exudes from a kind of giant-fennel[598] of the same name

as the resin, though sometimes it is known as stagonitis. The kind

that is the most esteemed is cartilaginous, clear like hammoniacum,

and free from all ligneous substances. Still, however, it is sometimes

adulterated with beans, or with sacopenium.[599] If ignited in a

pure state, it has the property of driving away serpents[600] by its

smoke. It is sold at five denarii per pound, and is only employed for

medicinal purposes.

CHAP. 57. (26.)—PANAX.

Syria, too, furnishes panax,[601] an ingredient used in unguents.

This plant grows also at Psophis in Arcadia, about the sources of the

Erymanthus, in Africa also, and in Macedonia. This is a peculiar kind

of giant-fennel, which stands five cubits in height: it first throws

out four leaves, and then six, which lie close to the ground, round,

and of very considerable size; those, however, which grow towards the

top resemble the leaves of the olive. It bears its seed in certain

tufts, which hang down, just as in the fennel. The juice is obtained

by incisions made in the stalk at harvest-time, and in the root in

autumn. When in a coagulated state, it is esteemed according to its

whiteness. The next in value is that of a pallid colour, while the

black is held in no esteem. The price of that of the best quality is

two denarii per pound.

CHAP. 58.—SPONDYLIUM.

The difference between this kind of giant-fennel and that known as

spondylium,[602] consists only in the leaf, which is smaller, and

divided like that of the plane-tree. It grows in shady places only. The

seed bears the same name as the plant, and has a strong resemblance to

that of hart-wort: it is only employed in medicine.

CHAP. 59.—MALOBATHRUM.

Syria produces the malobathrum[603] also, a tree which bears a folded

leaf, with just the colour of a leaf when dried. From this plant an

oil is extracted for unguents. Egypt produces it in still greater

abundance; but that which is the most esteemed of all comes from India,

where it is said to grow in the marshes like the lentil. It has a more

powerful odour than saffron, and has a black, rough appearance, with

a sort of brackish taste. The white is the least approved of all, and

it very soon turns musty when old. In taste it ought to be similar to

nard, when placed under the tongue. When made luke-warm in wine, the

odour which it emits is superior to any other. The prices at which this

drug ranges are something quite marvellous, being from one denarius to

four hundred per pound; as for the leaf, it generally sells at sixty

denarii per pound.

CHAP. 60. (27.)—OMPHACIUM.

Omphacium[604] is also a kind of oil, which is obtained from two

trees, the olive and the vine, by two different methods. It is

produced from the former by pressing the olive while it is still in

the white state. That is of an inferior quality which is made from

the druppa—such being the name that is given to the olive before it

is ripe and fit for food, but already beginning to change its colour.

The difference between them is, that the latter kind is green, the

former white. The omphacium that is made from the vine is extracted

from either the psythian[605] or the Aminean grape, when the grapes are

about the size of a chick-pea, just before the rising of the Dog-star.

The grape is gathered when the first bloom is appearing upon it, and

the verjuice is extracted, after which the residue[606] is left to dry

in the sun, due precautions being taken against the dews of the night.

The verjuice, after being collected, is put into earthen vessels, and

then, after that, stored in jars of Cyprian copper.[607] The best kind

is that which is of a reddish colour, acrid, and dry to the taste. The

price at which it sells is six denarii per pound. Omphacium is also

made another way—the unripe grape is pounded in a mortar, after which

it is dried in the sun, and then divided into lozenges.

CHAP. 61. (28.)—BRYON, ŒNANTHE, AND MASSARIS.

Bryon[608] also bears an affinity to these substances, being the

clusters of berries produced by the white poplar. The best kinds grow

in the vicinity of Cnidos, or in Caria, in spots that are destitute of

water, or else in dry and rugged localities. A bryon of second-rate

quality is produced from the cedar of Lycia.[609] Œnanthe, too, bears

an affinity to these substances, being the clusters of the wild vine:

it is gathered when it is in flower, or, in other words, when it has

the finest smell: after which it is dried in the shade upon a linen

sheet spread beneath it, and then stored away in casks. The best sort

is that which comes from Parapotamia;[610] the next best kinds are

those made at Antiochia and Laodicea in Syria; and that of third-rate

quality, comes from the mountainous parts of Media; this last, however,

is preferable for medicinal purposes. Some persons give the preference

over all to that grown in the island of Cyprus. As to that which comes

from Africa, it is solely used for medicinal purposes, being known by

the name of massaris.[611] Whatever country it may happen to be, the

white wild vine produces an œnanthe of superior quality to the black.

CHAP. 62.—ELATE OR SPATHE.

There is another tree[612] also, that contributes to the manufacture of

unguents, by some persons known under the name of elate, but which we

call abies; others again call it a palm, and others give it the name of

spathe. That of Hammonium is the most esteemed, and that of Egypt next,

after which comes the Syrian tree. It is only odoriferous, however, in

places that are destitute of water. The tears of it are of an unctuous

nature, and are employed as an ingredient in unguents, to modify the

harshness of the oil.

CHAP. 63.—CINNAMON OR COMACUM.

In Syria, too, is produced that kind of cinnamon which is also known as

comacum.[613] This is a juice which is extracted from a nut, and very

different from the extract of the real cinnamomum, though it somewhat

resembles it in its agreeable smell. The price at which it sells is

forty asses per pound.

SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, nine

hundred and seventy-four.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,[614] Mucianus,[615] Virgil,[616]

Fabianus,[617] Sebosus,[618] Pomponius Mela,[619] Flavius,[620]

Procilius,[621] Hyginus,[622] Trogus,[623] Claudius Cæsar,[624]

Cornelius Nepos,[625] Sextus Niger[626] who wrote a Greek treatise

on Medicine, Cassius Hemina,[627] L. Piso,[628] Tuditanus,[629]

Antias.[630]

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,[631] Herodotus,[632]

Callisthenes,[633] Isigonus,[634] Clitarchus,[635] Anaximenes,[636]

Duris,[637] Nearchus,[638] Onesicritus,[639] Polycritus,[640]

Olympiodorus,[641] Diognetus,[642] Nicobulus,[643] Anticlides,[644]

Chares[645] of Mitylene, Menæchmus,[646] Dorotheus[647] of Athens,

Lycus,[648] Antæus,[649] Ephippus,[650] Dion,[651] Demodes,[652]

Ptolemy Lagus,[653] Marsyas[654] of Macedon, Zoilus[655] of Macedon,

Democritus,[656] Amphilochus,[657] Aristomachus,[658] Alexander

Polyhistor,[659] Juba,[660] Apollodorus[661] who wrote on Perfumes,

Heraclides[662] the physician, Archidemus[663] the physician,

Dionysius[664] the physician, Democlides[665] the physician,

Euphron[666] the physician, Mnesides[667] the physician, Diagoras[668]

the physician, Iollas[669] the physician, Heraclides[670] of Tarentum,

Xenocrates[671] of Ephesus, Eratosthenes.[672]