part is the extreme [top] of this ramification and the middle

portion is more foreshortened than any other of those which are

turned with their tips towards you. And of those parts of the middle

of the height of the tree, the longest will be towards the top of

the tree and will produce a ramification like the foliage of the

common willow, which grows on the banks of rivers.

Other ramifications are spherical, as those of such trees as put

forth their shoots and leaves in the order of the sixth being placed

above the first. Others are thin and light like the willow and

others.

417.

You will see in the lower branches of the elder, which puts forth

leaves two and two placed crosswise [at right angles] one above

another, that if the stem rises straight up towards the sky this

order never fails; and its largest leaves are on the thickest part

of the stem and the smallest on the slenderest part, that is towards

the top. But, to return to the lower branches, I say that the leaves

on these are placed on them crosswise like [those on] the upper

branches; and as, by the law of all leaves, they are compelled to

turn their upper surface towards the sky to catch the dew at night,

it is necessary that those so placed should twist round and no

longer form a cross.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVII, No. 5.]

418.

A leaf always turns its upper side towards the sky so that it may

the better receive, on all its surface, the dew which drops gently

from the atmosphere. And these leaves are so distributed on the

plant as that one shall cover the other as little as possible, but

shall lie alternately one above another as may be seen in the ivy

which covers the walls. And this alternation serves two ends; that

is, to leave intervals by which the air and sun may penetrate

between them. The 2nd reason is that the drops which fall from the

first leaf may fall onto the fourth or--in other trees--onto the

sixth.

419.

Every shoot and every fruit is produced above the insertion [in the

axil] of its leaf which serves it as a mother, giving it water from

the rain and moisture from the dew which falls at night from above,

and often it protects them against the too great heat of the rays of

the sun.

LIGHT ON BRANCHES AND LEAVES (420--422).

420.

That part of the body will be most illuminated which is hit by the

luminous ray coming between right angles.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 1.]

421.

Young plants have more transparent leaves and a more lustrous bark

than old ones; and particularly the walnut is lighter coloured in

May than in September.

422.

OF THE ACCIDENTS OF COLOURING IN TREES.

The accidents of colour in the foliage of trees are 4. That is:

shadow, light, lustre [reflected light] and transparency.

OF THE VISIBILITY OF THESE ACCIDENTS.

These accidents of colour in the foliage of trees become confused at

a great distance and that which has most breadth [whether light or

shade, &c.] will be most conspicuous.

The proportions of light and shade in a leaf (423-426).

423.

OF THE SHADOWS OF A LEAF.

Sometimes a leaf has three accidents [of light] that is: shade,

lustre [reflected light] and transparency [transmitted light]. Thus,

if the light were at _n_ as regards the leaf _s_, and the eye at

_m_, it would see _a_ in full light, _b_ in shadow and _c_

transparent.

424.

A leaf with a concave surface seen from the under side and

up-side-down will sometimes show itself as half in shade, and half

transparent. Thus, if _o p_ is the leaf and the light _m_ and the

eye _n_, this will see _o_ in shadow because the light does not fall

upon it between equal angles, neither on the upper nor the under

side, and _p_ is lighted on the upper side and the light is

transmitted to its under side. [Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the

upper sketch on the page. In the original they are drawn in red

chalk.]

425.

Although those leaves which have a polished surface are to a great

extent of the same colour on the right side and on the reverse, it

may happen that the side which is turned towards the atmosphere will

have something of the colour of the atmosphere; and it will seem to

have more of this colour of the atmosphere in proportion as the eye

is nearer to it and sees it more foreshortened. And, without

exception the shadows show as darker on the upper side than on the

lower, from the contrast offered by the high lights which limit the

shadows.

The under side of the leaf, although its colour may be in itself the

same as that of the upper side, shows a still finer colour--a colour

that is green verging on yellow--and this happens when the leaf is

placed between

426.

the eye and the light which falls upon it from the opposite side.

And its shadows are in the same positions as those were of the

opposite side. Therefore, O Painter! when you do trees close at

hand, remember that if the eye is almost under the tree you will see

its leaves [some] on the upper and [some] on the under side, and the

upper side will be bluer in proportion as they are seen more

foreshortened, and the same leaf sometimes shows part of the right

side and part of the under side, whence you must make it of two

colours.

Of the transparency of leaves (427-429).

427.

The shadows in transparent leaves seen from the under side are the

same shadows as there are on the right side of this leaf, they will

show through to the underside together with lights, but the lustre

[reflected light] can never show through.

428.

When one green has another [green] behind it, the lustre on the

leaves and their transparent [lights] show more strongly than in

those which are [seen] against the brightness of the atmosphere.

And if the sun illuminates the leaves without their coming between

it and the eye and without the eye facing the sun, then the

reflected lights and the transparent lights are very strong.

It is very effective to show some branches which are low down and

dark and so set off the illuminated greens which are at some

distance from the dark greens seen below. That part is darkest which

is nearest to the eye or which is farthest from the luminous

atmosphere.

429.

Never paint leaves transparent to the sun, because they are

confused; and this is because on the transparency of one leaf will

be seen the shadow of another leaf which is above it. This shadow

has a distinct outline and a certain depth of shade and sometimes is

[as much as] half or a third of the leaf which is shaded; and

consequently such an arrangement is very confused and the imitation

of it should be avoided.

The light shines least through a leaf when it falls upon it at an

acute angle.

The gradations of shade and colour in leaves (430-434).

430.

The shadows of plants are never black, for where the atmosphere

penetrates there can never be utter darkness.

431.

If the light comes from _m_ and the eye is at _n_ the eye will see

the colour of the leaves _a b_ all affected by the colour of _m_

--that is of the atmosphere; and _b c_ will be seen from the under

side as transparent, with a beautiful green colour verging on

yellow.

If _m_ is the luminous body lighting up the leaf _s_ all the eyes

that see the under side of this leaf will see it of a beautiful

light green, being transparent.

In very many cases the positions of the leaves will be without

shadow [or in full light], and their under side will be transparent

and the right side lustrous [reflecting light].

432.

The willow and other similar trees, which have their boughs lopped

every 3 or 4 years, put forth very straight branches, and their

shadow is about the middle where these boughs spring; and towards

the extreme ends they cast but little shade from having small leaves

and few and slender branches. Hence the boughs which rise towards

the sky will have but little shade and little relief; and the

branches which are at an angle from the horizon, downwards, spring

from the dark part of the shadow and grow thinner by degrees up to

their ends, and these will be in strong relief, being in gradations

of light against a background of shadow.

That tree will have the least shadow which has the fewest branches

and few leaves.

433.

OF DARK LEAVES IN FRONT OF TRANSPARENT ONES.

When the leaves are interposed between the light and the eye, then

that which is nearest to the eye will be the darkest, and the most

distant will be the lightest, not being seen against the atmosphere;

and this is seen in the leaves which are away from the centre of the

tree, that is towards the light.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 2, the lower sketch.]

434.

OF THE LIGHTS ON DARK LEAVES.

The lights on such leaves which are darkest, will be most near to

the colour of the atmosphere that is reflected in them. And the

cause of this is that the light on the illuminated portion mingles

with the dark hue to compose a blue colour; and this light is

produced by the blueness of the atmosphere which is reflected in the

smooth surface of these leaves and adds to the blue hue which this

light usually produces when it falls on dark objects.

OF THE LIGHTS ON LEAVES OF A YELLOWISH GREEN.

But leaves of a green verging on yellow when they reflect the

atmosphere do not produce a reflection verging on blue, inasmuch as

every thing which appears in a mirror takes some colour from that

mirror, hence the blue of the atmosphere being reflected in the

yellow of the leaf appears green, because blue and yellow mixed

together make a very fine green colour, therefore the lustre of

light leaves verging on yellow will be greenish yellow.

A classification of trees according to their colours.

435.

The trees in a landscape are of various kinds of green, inasmuch as

some verge towards blackness, as firs, pines, cypresses, laurels,

box and the like. Some tend to yellow such as walnuts, and pears,

vines and verdure. Some are both yellowish and dark as chesnuts,

holm-oak. Some turn red in autumn as the service-tree, pomegranate,

vine, and cherry; and some are whitish as the willow, olive, reeds

and the like. Trees are of various forms ...

The proportions of light and shade in trees (436-440).

436.

OF A GENERALLY DISTRIBUTED LIGHT AS LIGHTING UP TREES.

That part of the trees will be seen to lie in the least dark shadow

which is farthest from the earth.

To prove it let _a p_ be the tree, _n b c_ the illuminated

hemisphere [the sky], the under portion of the tree faces the earth

_p c_, that is on the side _o_, and it faces a small part of the

hemisphere at _c d_. But the highest part of the convexity a faces

the greatest part of the hemisphere, that is _b c_. For this

reason--and because it does not face the darkness of the earth--it

is in fuller light. But if the tree has dense foliage, as the

laurel, arbutus, box or holm oak, it will be different; because,

although _a_ does not face the earth, it faces the dark [green] of

the leaves cut up by many shadows, and this darkness is reflected

onto the under sides of the leaves immediately above. Thus these

trees have their darkest shadows nearest to the middle of the tree.

437.

OF THE SHADOWS OF VERDURE.

The shadows of verdure are always somewhat blue, and so is every

shadow of every object; and they assume this hue more in proportion

as they are remote from the eye, and less in proportion as they are

nearer. The leaves which reflect the blue of the atmosphere always

present themselves to the eye edgewise.

OF THE ILLUMINATED PART OF VERDURE AND OF MOUNTAINS.

The illuminated portion, at a great distance, will appear most

nearly of its natural colour where the strongest light falls upon

it.

438.

OF TREES THAT ARE LIGHTED BY THE SUN AND BY THE ATMOSPHERE.

In trees that are illuminated [both] by the sun and the atmosphere

and that have leaves of a dark colour, one side will be illuminated

by the atmosphere [only] and in consequence of this light will tend

to blueness, while on the other side they will be illuminated by the

atmosphere and the sun; and the side which the eye sees illuminated

by the sun will reflect light.

439.

OF DEPICTING A FOREST SCENE.

The trees and plants which are most thickly branched with slender

branches ought to have less dark shadow than those trees and plants

which, having broader leaves, will cast more shadow.

440.

ON PAINTING.

In the position of the eye which sees that portion of a tree

illuminated which turns towards the light, one tree will never be

seen to be illuminated equally with the other. To prove this, let

the eye be _c_ which sees the two trees _b d_ which are illuminated

by the sun _a_; I say that this eye _c_ will not see the light in

the same proportion to the shade, in one tree as in the other.

Because, the tree which is nearest to the sun will display so much

the stronger shadow than the more distant one, in proportion as one

tree is nearer to the rays of the sun that converge to the eye than

the other; &c.

You see that the eye _c_ sees nothing of the tree _d_ but shadow,

while the same eye _c_ sees thè tree _b_ half in light and half in

shade.

When a tree is seen from below, the eye sees the top of it as placed

within the circle made by its boughs[23].

Remember, O Painter! that the variety of depth of shade in any one

particular species of tree is in proportion to the rarity or density

of their branches.

[Footnote: The two lower sketches on the left of Pl XXVIII, No. 3,

refer to lines 21-23. The upper sketch has apparently been effaced

by Leonardo himself.]

The distribution of light and shade with reference to the position

of the spectator (441-443).

441.

The shadows of trees placed in a landscape do not display themselves

in the same position in the trees on the right hand and those on the

left; still more so if the sun is to the right or left. As is proved

by the 4th which says: Opaque bodies placed between the light and

the eye display themselves entirely in shadow; and by the 5th: The

eye when placed between the opaque body and the light sees the

opaque body entirely illuminated. And by the 6th: When the eye and

the opaque body are placed between darkness and light, it will be

seen half in shadow and half in light.

[Footnote: See the figure on the right hand side of Pl. XXVIII, No.

3. The first five lines of the text are written below the diagram

and above it are the last eight lines of the text, given as No.

461.]

442.

OF THE HERBS OF THE FIELD.

Of the plants which take a shadow from the plants which spring among

them, those which are on this side [in front] of the shadow have the

stems lighted up on a background of shadow, and the plants on which

the shadows fall have their stems dark on a light background; that

is on the background beyond the shadow.

OF TREES WHICH ARE BETWEEN THE EYE AND THE LIGHT.

Of the trees which are between the eye and the light the part in

front will be light; but this light will be broken by the

ramifications of transparent leaves--being seen from the under

side--and lustrous leaves--being seen from the upper side; and the

background below and behind will be dark green, being in shadow from

the front portion of the said tree. This occurs in trees placed

above the eye.

443.

FROM WHENCE TO DEPICT A LANDSCAPE

Landscapes should be represented so that the trees may be half in

light and half in shadow; but it is better to do them when the sun

is covered with clouds, for then the trees are lighted by the

general light of the sky, and the general darkness of the earth. And

then they are darkest in certain parts in proportion as those parts

are nearest to the middle of the tree and to the earth.

The effects of morning light (444-448).

444.

OF TREES TO THE SOUTH.

When the sun is in the east the trees to the South and to the North

have almost as much light as shadow. But a greater share of light in

proportion as they lie to the West and a greater share of shadow in

proportion as they lie to the East.

OF MEADOWS.

If the sun is in the East the verdure of the meadows and of other

small plants is of a most beautiful green from being transparent to

the sun; this does not occur in the meadows to the West, and in

those to the South and North the grass is of a moderately brilliant

green.

445.

OF THE 4 POINTS OF THE COMPASS [IN LANDSCAPES].

When the sun is in the East all the portions of plants lighted by it

are of a most lively verdure, and this happens because the leaves

lighted by the sun within the half of the horizon that is the

Eastern half, are transparent; and within the Western semicircle the

verdure is of a dull hue and the moist air is turbid and of the

colour of grey ashes, not being transparent like that in the East,

which is quite clear and all the more so in proportion as it is

moister.

The shadows of the trees to the East cover a large portion of them

and are darker in proportion as the foliage of the trees is thicker.

446.

OF TREES IN THE EAST.

When the sun is in the East the trees seen towards the East will

have the light which surrounds them all round their shadows,

excepting on the side towards the earth; unless the tree has been

pruned [below] in the past year. And the trees to the South and

North will be half in shade and half in light, and more or less in

shade or in light in proportion as they are more or less to the East

or to the West.

The [position of] the eye above or below varies the shadows and

lights in trees, inasmuch as the eye placed above sees the tree with

the little shadow, and the eye placed below with a great deal of

shadow.

The colour of the green in plants varies as much as their species.

447.

OF THE SHADOWS IN TREES.

The sun being in the East [to the right], the trees to the West [or

left] of the eye will show in small relief and almost imperceptible

gradations, because the atmosphere which lies between the eye and

those trees is very dense [Footnote 7: _per la 7a di questo_. This

possibly referred to something written on the seventh page of this

note book marked _G_. Unfortunately it has been cut out and lost.],

see the 7th of this--and they have no shade; for though a shadow

exists in every detail of the ramification, it results that the

images of the shade and light that reach the eye are confused and

mingled together and cannot be perceived on account of their

minuteness. And the principal lights are in the middle of the trees,

and the shadows to wards the edges; and their separation is shown by

the shadows of the intervals between the trees; but when the forests

are thick with trees the thin edges are but little seen.

448.

OF TREES TO THE EAST.

When the sun is in the East the trees are darker towards the middle

while their edges are light.

The effects of midday light.

449.

OBJECTS IN HIGH LIGHT SHOW BUT LITTLE, BUT BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW

THEY STAND OUT WELL.

To represent a landscape choose that the sun shall be at noon and

look towards the West or East and then draw. And if you turn towards

the North, every object placed on that side will have no shadow,

particularly those which are nearest to the [direction of the]

shadow of your head. And if you turn towards the South every object

on that side will be wholly in shadow. All the trees which are

towards the sun and have the atmosphere for their background are

dark, and the other trees which lie against that darkness will be

black [very dark] in the middle and lighter towards the edges.

The appearance of trees in the distance (450. 451).

450.

OF THE SPACES [SHOWING THE SKY] IN TREES THEMSELVES.

The spaces between the parts in the mass of trees, and the spaces

between the trees in the air, are, at great distances, invisible to

the eye; for, where it is an effort [even] to see the whole it is

most difficult to discern the parts.--But a confused mixture is the

result, partaking chiefly of the [hue] which predominates. The

spaces between the leaves consist of particles of illuminated air

which are very much smaller than the tree and are lost sight of

sooner than the tree; but it does not therefore follow that they are

not there. Hence, necessarily, a compounded [effect] is produced of

the sky and of the shadows of the tree in shade, which both together

strike the eye which sees them.

OF TREES WHICH CONCEAL THESE SPACES IN ONE ANOTHER.

That part of a tree will show the fewest spaces, behind which a

large number of trees are standing between the tree and the air

[sky]; thus in the tree _a_ the spaces are not concealed nor in _b_,

as there is no tree behind. But in _c_ only half shows the spaces

filled up by the tree _d_, and part of the tree _d_ is filled up by

the tree _e_ and a little farther on all the spaces in the mass of

the trees are lost, and only that at the side remains.

451.

OF TREES.

What outlines are seen in trees at a distance against the sky which

serves as their background?

The outlines of the ramification of trees, where they lie against

the illuminated sky, display a form which more nearly approaches the

spherical on proportion as they are remote, and the nearer they are

the less they appear in this spherical form; as in the first tree

_a_ which, being near to the eye, displays the true form of its

ramification; but this shows less in _b_ and is altogether lost in

_c_, where not merely the branches of the tree cannot be seen but

the whole tree is distinguished with difficulty. Every object in

shadow, of whatever form it may be, at a great distance appears to

be spherical. And this occurs because, if it is a square body, at a

very short distance it loses its angles, and a little farther off it

loses still more of its smaller sides which remain. And thus before

the whole is lost [to sight] the parts are lost, being smaller than

the whole; as a man, who in such a distant position loses his legs,

arms and head before [the mass of] his body, then the outlines of

length are lost before those of breadth, and where they have become

equal it would be a square if the angles remained; but as they are

lost it is round.

[Footnote: The sketch No. 4, Pl. XXVIII, belongs to this passage.]

The cast shadow of trees (452. 453).

452.

The image of the shadow of any object of uniform breadth can never

be [exactly] the same as that of the body which casts it.

[Footnote: See Pl. XXVIII, No. 5.]

Light and shade on groups of trees (453-457).

453.

All trees seen against the sun are dark towards the middle and this

shadow will be of the shape of the tree when apart from others.

The shadows cast by trees on which the sun shines are as dark as

those of the middle of the tree.

The shadow cast by a tree is never less than the mass of the tree

but becomes taller in proportion as the spot on which it falls,

slopes towards the centre of the world.

The shadow will be densest in the middle of the tree when the tree

has the fewest branches.

[Footnote: The three diagrams which accompany this text are placed,

in the original, before lines 7-11. At the spots marked _B_ Leonardo

wrote _Albero_ (tree). At _A_ is the word _Sole_ (sun), at _C Monte_

(mountain) at _D piano_ (plain) and at _E cima_ (summit).]

Every branch participates of the central shadow of every other

branch and consequently [of that] of the whole tree.

The form of any shadow from a branch or tree is circumscribed by the

light which falls from the side whence the light comes; and this

illumination gives the shape of the shadow, and this may be of the

distance of a mile from the side where the sun is.

If it happens that a cloud should anywhere overshadow some part of a

hill the [shadow of the] trees there will change less than in the

plains; for these trees on the hills have their branches thicker,

because they grow less high each year than in the plains. Therefore

as these branches are dark by nature and being so full of shade, the

shadow of the clouds cannot darken them any more; but the open

spaces between the trees, which have no strong shadow change very

much in tone and particularly those which vary from green; that is

ploughed lands or fallen mountains or barren lands or rocks. Where

the trees are against the atmosphere they appear all the same

colour--if indeed they are not very close together or very thickly

covered with leaves like the fir and similar trees. When you see the

trees from the side from which the sun lights them, you will see

them almost all of the same tone, and the shadows in them will be

hidden by the leaves in the light, which come between your eye and

those shadows.

TREES AT A SHORT DISTANCE.

[Footnote 29: The heading _alberi vicini_ (trees at a short

distance) is in the original manuscript written in the margin.] When

the trees are situated between the sun and the eye, beyond the

shadow which spreads from their centre, the green of their leaves

will be seen transparent; but this transparency will be broken in

many places by the leaves and boughs in shadow which will come

between you and them, or, in their upper portions, they will be

accompanied by many lights reflected from the leaves.

454.

The trees of the landscape stand out but little from each other;

because their illuminated portions come against the illuminated

portions of those beyond and differ little from them in light and

shade.

455.

Of trees seen from below and against the light, one beyond the other

and near together. The topmost part of the first will be in great

part transparent and light, and will stand out against the dark

portion of the second tree. And thus it will be with all in

succession that are placed under the same conditions.

Let _s_ be the light, and _r_ the eye, _c d n_ the first tree, _a b

c_ the second. Then I say that _r_, the eye, will see the portion _c

f_ in great part transparent and lighted by the light _s_ which

falls upon it from the opposite side, and it will see it, on a dark

ground _b c_ because that is the dark part and shadow of the tree _a

b c_.

But if the eye is placed at _t_ it will see _o p_ dark on the light

background _n g_.

Of the transparent and shadowy parts of trees, that which is nearest

to you is the darkest.

456.

That part of a tree which has shadow for background, is all of one

tone, and wherever the trees or branches are thickest they will be

darkest, because there are no little intervals of air. But where the

boughs lie against a background of other boughs, the brighter parts

are seen lightest and the leaves lustrous from the sunlight falling

on them.

457.

In the composition of leafy trees be careful not to repeat too often

the same colour of one tree against the same colour of another

[behind it]; but vary it with a lighter, or a darker, or a stronger

green.

On the treatment of light for landscapes (458-464).

458.

The landscape has a finer azure [tone] when, in fine weather the sun

is at noon than at any other time of the day, because the air is

purified of moisture; and looking at it under that aspect you will

see the trees of a beautiful green at the outside and the shadows

dark towards the middle; and in the remoter distance the atmosphere

which comes between you and them looks more beautiful when there is

something dark beyond. And still the azure is most beautiful. The

objects seen from the side on which the sun shines will not show you

their shadows. But, if you are lower than the sun, you can see what

is not seen by the sun and that will be all in shade. The leaves of

the trees, which come between you and the sun are of two principal

colours which are a splendid lustre of green, and the reflection of

the atmosphere which lights up the objects which cannot be seen by

the sun, and the shaded portions which only face the earth, and the

darkest which are surrounded by something that is not dark. The

trees in the landscape which are between you and the sun are far

more beautiful than those you see when you are between the sun and

them; and this is so because those which face the sun show their

leaves as transparent towards the ends of their branches, and those

that are not transparent--that is at the ends--reflect the light;

and the shadows are dark because they are not concealed by any

thing.

The trees, when you place yourself between them and the sun, will

only display to you their light and natural colour, which, in

itself, is not very strong, and besides this some reflected lights

which, being against a background which does not differ very much

from themselves in tone, are not conspicuous; and if you are lower

down than they are situated, they may also show those portions on

which the light of the sun does not fall and these will be dark.

In the Wind.

But, if you are on the side whence the wind blows, you will see the

trees look very much lighter than on the other sides, and this

happens because the wind turns up the under side of the leaves,

which, in all trees, is much whiter than the upper sides; and, more

especially, will they be very light indeed if the wind blows from

the quarter where the sun is, and if you have your back turned to

it.

[Footnote: At _S_, in the original is the word _Sole_ (sun) and at

_N parte di nuvolo_ (the side of the clouds).]

459.

When the sun is covered by clouds, objects are less conspicuous,

because there is little difference between the light and shade of

the trees and of the buildings being illuminated by the brightness

of the atmosphere which surrounds the objects in such a way that the

shadows are few, and these few fade away so that their outline is

lost in haze.

460.

OF TREES AND LIGHTS ON THEM.

The best method of practice in representing country scenes, or I

should say landscapes with their trees, is to choose them so that

the sun is covered with clouds so that the landscape receives an

universal light and not the direct light of the sun, which makes the

shadows sharp and too strongly different from the lights.

461.

OF PAINTING.

In landscapes which represent [a scene in] winter. The mountains

should not be shown blue, as we see in the mountains in the summer.

And this is proved [Footnote 5. 6.: _Per la_ 4_a di questo_. It is

impossible to ascertain what this quotation refers to. _Questo_

certainly does not mean the MS. in hand, nor any other now known to

us. The same remark applies to the phrase in line 15: _per la_ 2_a

di questo_.] in the 4th of this which says: Among mountains seen

from a great distance those will look of the bluest colour which are

in themselves the darkest; hence, when the trees are stripped of

their leaves, they will show a bluer tinge which will be in itself

darker; therefore, when the trees have lost their leaves they will

look of a gray colour, while, with their leaves, they are green, and

in proportion as the green is darker than the grey hue the green

will be of a bluer tinge than the gray. Also by the 2nd of this: The

shadows of trees covered with leaves are darker than the shadows of

those trees which have lost their leaves in proportion as the trees

covered with leaves are denser than those without leaves--and thus

my meaning is proved.

The definition of the blue colour of the atmosphere explains why the

landscape is bluer in the summer than in the winter.

462.

OF PAINTING IN A LANDSCAPE.

If the slope of a hill comes between the eye and the horizon,

sloping towards the eye, while the eye is opposite the middle of the

height of this slope, then that hill will increase in darkness

throughout its length. This is proved by the 7th of this which says

that a tree looks darkest when it is seen from below; the

proposition is verified, since this hill will, on its upper half

show all its trees as much from the side which is lighted by the

light of the sky, as from that which is in shade from the darkness

of the earth; whence it must result that these trees are of a medium

darkness. And from this [middle] spot towards the base of the hill,

these trees will be lighter by degrees by the converse of the 7th

and by the said 7th: For trees so placed, the nearer they are to the

summit of the hill the darker they necessarily become. But this

darkness is not in proportion to the distance, by the 8th of this

which says: That object shows darkest which is [seen] in the

clearest atmosphere; and by the 10th: That shows darkest which

stands out against a lighter background.

[Footnote: The quotation in this passage again cannot be verified.]

463.

OF LANDSCAPES.

The colours of the shadows in mountains at a great distance take a

most lovely blue, much purer than their illuminated portions. And

from this it follows that when the rock of a mountain is reddish the

illuminated portions are violet (?) and the more they are lighted

the more they display their proper colour.

464.

A place is most luminous when it is most remote from mountains.

On the treatment of light for views of towns (465-469).

465.

OF LIGHT AND SHADOW IN A TOWN.

When the sun is in the East and the eye is above the centre of a

town, the eye will see the Southern part of the town with its roofs

half in shade and half in light, and the same towards the North; the

Eastern side will be all in shadow and the Western will be all in

light.

466.

Of the houses of a town, in which the divisions between the houses

may be distinguished by the light which fall on the mist at the

bottom. If the eye is above the houses the light seen in the space

that is between one house and the next sinks by degrees into thicker

mist; and yet, being less transparent, it appears whiter; and if the

houses are some higher than the others, since the true [colour] is

always more discernible through the thinner atmosphere, the houses

will look darker in proportion as they are higher up. Let _n o p q_

represent the various density of the atmosphere thick with moisture,

_a_ being the eye, the house _b c_ will look lightest at the bottom,

because it is in a thicker atmosphere; the lines _c d f_ will appear

equally light, for although _f_ is more distant than _c_, it is

raised into a thinner atmosphere, if the houses _b e_ are of the

same height, because they cross a brightness which is varied by

mist, but this is only because the line of the eye which starts from

above ends by piercing a lower and denser atmosphere at _d_ than at

_b_. Thus the line a _f_ is lower at _f_ than at _c_; and the house

_f_ will be seen darker at _e_ from the line _e k_ as far as _m_,

than the tops of the houses standing in front of it.

467.

OF TOWNS OR OTHER BUILDINGS SEEN IN THE EVENING OR THE MORNING

THROUGH THE MIST.

Of buildings seen at a great distance in the evening or the morning,

as in mist or dense atmosphere, only those portions are seen in

brightness which are lighted up by the sun which is near the

horizon; and those portions which are not lighted up by the sun

remain almost of the same colour and medium tone as the mist.

WHY OBJECTS WHICH ARE HIGH UP AND AT A DISTANCE ARE DARKER THAN THE

LOWER ONES, EVEN IF THE MIST IS UNIFORMLY DENSE.

Of objects standing in a mist or other dense atmosphere, whether

from vapour or smoke or distance, those will be most visible which

are the highest. And among objects of equal height that will be the

darkest [strongest] which has for background the deepest mist. Thus

the eye _h_ looking at _a b c_, towers of equal height, one with

another, sees _c_ the top of the first tower at _r_, at two degrees

of depth in the mist; and sees the height of the middle tower _b_

through one single degree of mist. Therefore the top of the tower

_c_ appears stronger than the top of the tower _b_, &c.

468.

OF THE SMOKE OF A TOWN.

Smoke is seen better and more distinctly on the Eastern side than on

the Western when the sun is in the East; and this arises from two

causes; the first is that the sun, with its rays, shines through the

particles of the smoke and lights them up and makes them visible.

The second is that the roofs of the houses seen in the East at this

time are in shadow, because their obliquity does not allow of their

being illuminated by the sun. And the same thing occurs with dust;

and both one and the other look the lighter in proportion as they

are denser, and they are densest towards the middle.

469.

OF SMOKE AND DUST.

If the sun is in the East the smoke of cities will not be visible in

the West, because on that side it is not seen penetrated by the

solar rays, nor on a dark background; since the roofs of the houses

turn the same side to the eye as they turn towards the sun, and on

this light background the smoke is not very visible.

But dust, under the same aspect, will look darker than smoke being

of denser material than smoke which is moist.

The effect of wind on trees (470-473).

470.

OF REPRESENTING WIND.

In representing wind, besides the bending of the boughs and the

reversing of their leaves towards the quarter whence the wind comes,

you should also represent them amid clouds of fine dust mingled with

the troubled air.

471.

Describe landscapes with the wind, and the water, and the setting

and rising of the sun.

THE WIND.

All the leaves which hung towards the earth by the bending of the

shoots with their branches, are turned up side down by the gusts of

wind, and here their perspective is reversed; for, if the tree is

between you and the quarter of the wind, the leaves which are

towards you remain in their natural aspect, while those on the

opposite side which ought to have their points in a contrary

direction have, by being turned over, their points turned towards

you.

472.

Trees struck by the force of the wind bend to the side towards which

the wind is blowing; and the wind being past they bend in the

contrary direction, that is in reverse motion.

473.

That portion of a tree which is farthest from the force which

strikes it is the most injured by the blow because it bears most

strain; thus nature has foreseen this case by thickening them in

that part where they can be most hurt; and most in such trees as

grow to great heights, as pines and the like. [Footnote: Compare the

sketch drawn with a pen and washed with Indian ink on Pl. XL, No. 1.

In the Vatican copy we find, under a section entitled '_del fumo_',

the following remark: _Era sotto di questo capitulo un rompimento di

montagna, per dentro delle quali roture scherzaua fiame di fuoco,

disegnate di penna et ombrate d'acquarella, da uedere cosa mirabile

et uiua (Ed. MANZI, p. 235. Ed. LUDWIG, Vol. I, 460). This appears

to refer to the left hand portion of the drawing here given from the

Windsor collection, and from this it must be inferred, that the leaf

as it now exists in the library of the Queen of England, was already

separated from the original MS. at the time when the Vatican copy

was made.]

Light and shade on clouds (474-477).

474.

Describe how the clouds are formed and how they dissolve, and what

cause raises vapour.

475.

The shadows in clouds are lighter in proportion as they are nearer

to the horizon.

[Footnote: The drawing belonging to this was in black chalk and is

totally effaced.]

476.

When clouds come between the sun and the eye all the upper edges of

their round forms are light, and towards the middle they are dark,

and this happens because towards the top these edges have the sun

above them while you are below them; and the same thing happens with

the position of the branches of trees; and again the clouds, like

the trees, being somewhat transparent, are lighted up in part, and

at the edges they show thinner.

But, when the eye is between the cloud and the sun, the cloud has

the contrary effect to the former, for the edges of its mass are

dark and it is light towards the middle; and this happens because

you see the same side as faces the sun, and because the edges have

some transparency and reveal to the eye that portion which is hidden

beyond them, and which, as it does not catch the sunlight like that

portion turned towards it, is necessarily somewhat darker. Again, it

may be that you see the details of these rounded masses from the

lower side, while the sun shines on the upper side and as they are

not so situated as to reflect the light of the sun, as in the first

instance they remain dark.

The black clouds which are often seen higher up than those which are

illuminated by the sun are shaded by other clouds, lying between

them and the sun.

Again, the rounded forms of the clouds that face the sun, show their

edges dark because they lie against the light background; and to see

that this is true, you may look at the top of any cloud that is

wholly light because it lies against the blue of the atmosphere,

which is darker than the cloud.

[Footnote: A drawing in red chalk from the Windsor collection (see

Pl. XXIX), representing a landscape with storm-clouds, may serve to

illustrate this section as well as the following one.]

477.

OF CLOUDS, SMOKE AND DUST AND THE FLAMES OF A FURNACE OR OF A

BURNING KILN.

The clouds do not show their rounded forms excepting on the sides

which face the sun; on the others the roundness is imperceptible

because they are in the shade. [Footnote: The text of this chapter

is given in facsimile on Pls. XXXVI and XXXVII. The two halves of

the leaf form but one in the original. On the margin close to lines

4 and 5 is the note: _rossore d'aria inverso l'orizonte_--(of the

redness of the atmosphere near the horizon). The sketches on the

lower portion of the page will be spoken of in No. 668.]

If the sun is in the East and the clouds in the West, the eye placed

between the sun and the clouds sees the edges of the rounded forms

composing these clouds as dark, and the portions which are

surrounded by this dark [edge] are light. And this occurs because

the edges of the rounded forms of these clouds are turned towards

the upper or lateral sky, which is reflected in them.

Both the cloud and the tree display no roundness at all on their

shaded side.

On images reflected in water.

478.

Painters often deceive themselves, by representing water in which

they make the water reflect the objects seen by the man. But the

water reflects the object from one side and the man sees it from the

other; and it often happens that the painter sees an object from

below, and thus one and the same object is seen from hind part

before and upside down, because the water shows the image of the

object in one way, and the eye sees it in another.

Of rainbows and rain (479. 480).

479.

The colours in the middle of the rainbow mingle together.

The bow in itself is not in the rain nor in the eye that sees it;

though it is generated by the rain, the sun, and the eye. The

rainbow is always seen by the eye that is between the rain and the

body of the sun; hence if the sun is in the East and the rain is in

the West it will appear on the rain in the West.

480.

When the air is condensed into rain it would produce a vacuum if the

rest of the air did not prevent this by filling its place, as it

does with a violent rush; and this is the wind which rises in the

summer time, accompanied by heavy rain.

Of flower seeds.

481.

All the flowers which turn towards the sun perfect their seeds; but

not the others; that is to say those which get only the reflection

of the sun.

IX.

_The Practice of Painting._

_It is hardly necessary to offer any excuses for the division

carried out in the arrangement of the text into practical

suggestions and theoretical enquiries. It was evidently intended by

Leonardo himself as we conclude from incidental remarks in the MSS.

(for instance No_ 110_). The fact that this arrangement was never

carried out either in the old MS. copies or in any edition since, is

easily accounted for by the general disorder which results from the

provisional distribution of the various chapters in the old copies.

We have every reason to believe that the earliest copyists, in

distributing the materials collected by them, did not in the least

consider the order in which the original MS.lay before them._

_It is evident that almost all the chapters which refer to the

calling and life of the painter--and which are here brought together

in the first section (Nos._ 482-508_)--may be referred to two

distinct periods in Leonardo's life; most of them can be dated as

belonging to the year_ 1492 _or to_ 1515. _At about this later time

Leonardo may have formed the project of completing his Libro della

Pittura, after an interval of some years, as it would seem, during

which his interest in the subject had fallen somewhat into the

background._

_In the second section, which treats first of the artist's studio,

the construction of a suitable window forms the object of careful

investigations; the special importance attached to this by Leonardo

is sufficiently obvious. His theory of the incidence of light which

was fully discussed in a former part of this work, was to him by no

means of mere abstract value, but, being deduced, as he says, from

experience (or experiment) was required to prove its utility in

practice. Connected with this we find suggestions for the choice of

a light with practical hints as to sketching a picture and some

other precepts of a practical character which must come under

consideration in the course of completing the painting. In all this

I have followed the same principle of arrangement in the text as was

carried out in the Theory of Painting, thus the suggestions for the

Perspective of a picture, (Nos._ 536-569_), are followed by the

theory of light and shade for the practical method of optics (Nos._

548--566_) and this by the practical precepts or the treatment of

aerial perspective (_567--570_)._

_In the passage on Portrait and Figure Painting the principles of

painting as applied to a bust and head are separated and placed

first, since the advice to figure painters must have some connection

with the principles of the treatment of composition by which they

are followed._

_But this arrangement of the text made it seem advisable not to pick

out the practical precepts as to the representation of trees and

landscape from the close connection in which they were originally

placed--unlike the rest of the practical precepts--with the theory

of this branch of the subject. They must therefore be sought under

the section entitled Botany for Painters._

_As a supplement to the_ Libro di Pittura _I have here added those

texts which treat of the Painter's materials,--as chalk, drawing

paper, colours and their preparation, of the management of oils and

varnishes; in the appendix are some notes on chemical substances.

Possibly some of these, if not all, may have stood in connection

with the preparation of colours. It is in the very nature of things

that Leonardo's incidental indications as to colours and the like

should be now-a-days extremely obscure and could only be explained

by professional experts--by them even in but few instances. It might

therefore have seemed advisable to reproduce exactly the original

text without offering any translation. The rendering here given is

merely an attempt to suggest what Leonardo's meaning may have been._

_LOMAZZO tells us in his_ Trattato dell'arte della Pittura, Scultura

ed Architettura (Milano 1584, libro II, Cap. XIV): "Va discorrendo

ed argomentando Leonardo Vinci in un suo libro letto da me (?)

questi anni passati, ch'egli scrisse di mano stanca ai prieghi di

LUDOVICO SFORZA duca di Milano, in determinazione di questa

questione, se e piu nobile la pittura o la scultura; dicendo che

quanto piu un'arte porta seco fatica di corpo, e sudore, tanto piu e

vile, e men pregiata". _But the existence of any book specially

written for Lodovico il Moro on the superiority of Painting over

sculpture is perhaps mythical. The various passages in praise of

Painting as compared not merely with Sculpture but with Poetry, are

scattered among MSS. of very different dates._

_Besides, the way, in which the subject is discussed appears not to

support the supposition, that these texts were prepared at a special

request of the Duke._

I.

MORAL PRECEPTS FOR THE STUDENT OF PAINTING.

How to ascertain the dispositions for an artistic career.

482.

A WARNING CONCERNING YOUTHS WISHING TO BE PAINTERS.

Many are they who have a taste and love for drawing, but no talent;

and this will be discernible in boys who are not diligent and never

finish their drawings with shading.

The course of instruction for an artist (483-485).

483.

The youth should first learn perspective, then the proportions of

objects. Then he may copy from some good master, to accustom himself

to fine forms. Then from nature, to confirm by practice the rules he

has learnt. Then see for a time the works of various masters. Then

get the habit of putting his art into practice and work.

[Footnote: The Vatican copy and numerous abridgements all place this

chapter at the beginning of the _Trattato_, and in consequence

DUFRESNE and all subsequent editors have done the same. In the

Vatican copy however all the general considerations on the relation

of painting to the other arts are placed first, as introductory.]

484.

OF THE ORDER OF LEARNING TO DRAW.

First draw from drawings by good masters done from works of art and

from nature, and not from memory; then from plastic work, with the

guidance of the drawing done from it; and then from good natural

models and this you must put into practice.

485.

PRECEPTS FOR DRAWING.

The artist ought first to exercise his hand by copying drawings from

the hand of a good master. And having acquired that practice, under

the criticism of his master, he should next practise drawing objects

in relief of a good style, following the rules which will presently

be given.

The study of the antique (486. 487).

486.

OF DRAWING.

Which is best, to draw from nature or from the antique? and which is

more difficult to do outlines or light and shade?

487.

It is better to imitate [copy] the antique than modern work.

[Footnote 486, 487: These are the only two passages in which

Leonardo alludes to the importance of antique art in the training of

an artist. The question asked in No. 486 remains unanswered by him

and it seems to me very doubtful whether the opinion stated in No.

487 is to be regarded as a reply to it. This opinion stands in the

MS. in a connection--as will be explained later on--which seems to

require us to limit its application to a single special case. At any

rate we may suspect that when Leonardo put the question, he felt

some hesitation as to the answer. Among his very numerous drawings I

have not been able to find a single study from the antique, though a

drawing in black chalk, at Windsor, of a man on horseback (PI.

LXXIII) may perhaps be a reminiscence of the statue of Marcus

Aurelius at Rome. It seems to me that the drapery in a pen and ink

drawing of a bust, also at Windsor, has been borrowed from an

antique model (Pl. XXX). G. G. Rossi has, I believe, correctly

interpreted Leonardo's feeling towards the antique in the following

note on this passage in manzi's edition, p. 501: "Sappiamo dalla

storia, che i valorosi artisti Toscani dell'età dell'oro dell'arte

studiarono sugli antichi marmi raccolti dal Magnifico LORENZO DE'

MEDICI. Pare che il Vinci a tali monumenti non si accostasse. Quest'

uomo sempre riconosce per maestra la natura, e questo principio lo

stringeva alla sola imitazione dì essa"--Compare No. 10, 26--28

footnote.]

The necessity of anatomical knowledge (488. 489).

488.

OF PAINTING.

It is indispensable to a Painter who would be thoroughly familiar

with the limbs in all the positions and actions of which they are

capable, in the nude, to know the anatomy of the sinews, bones,

muscles and tendons so that, in their various movements and

exertions, he may know which nerve or muscle is the cause of each

movement and show those only as prominent and thickened, and not the

others all over [the limb], as many do who, to seem great

draughtsmen, draw their nude figures looking like wood, devoid of

grace; so that you would think you were looking at a sack of walnuts

rather than the human form, or a bundle of radishes rather than the

muscles of figures.

489.

HOW IT IS NECESSARY TO A PAINTER THAT HE SHOULD KNOW THE INTRINSIC

FORMS [STRUCTURE] OF MAN.

The painter who is familiar with the nature of the sinews, muscles,

and tendons, will know very well, in giving movement to a limb, how

many and which sinews cause it; and which muscle, by swelling,

causes the contraction of that sinew; and which sinews, expanded

into the thinnest cartilage, surround and support the said muscle.

Thus he will variously and constantly demonstrate the different

muscles by means of the various attitudes of his figures, and will

not do, as many who, in a variety of movements, still display the

very same things [modelling] in the arms, back, breast and legs. And

these things are not to be regarded as minor faults.

How to acquire practice.

490.

OF STUDY AND THE ORDER OF STUDY.

I say that first you ought to learn the limbs and their mechanism,

and having this knowledge, their actions should come next, according

to the circumstances in which they occur in man. And thirdly to

compose subjects, the studies for which should be taken from natural

actions and made from time to time, as circumstances allow; and pay

attention to them in the streets and _piazze_ and fields, and note

them down with a brief indication of the forms; [Footnote 5: Lines

5-7 explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.]

thus for a head make an o, and for an arm a straight or a bent line,

and the same for the legs and the body, [Footnote 7: Lines 5-7

explained by the lower portion of the sketch No. 1 on Pl. XXXI.] and

when you return home work out these notes in a complete form. The

Adversary says that to acquire practice and do a great deal of work

it is better that the first period of study should be employed in

drawing various compositions done on paper or on walls by divers

masters, and that in this way practice is rapidly gained, and good

methods; to which I reply that the method will be good, if it is

based on works of good composition and by skilled masters. But since

such masters are so rare that there are but few of them to be found,

it is a surer way to go to natural objects, than to those which are

imitated from nature with great deterioration, and so form bad

methods; for he who can go to the fountain does not go to the

water-jar.

[Footnote: This passage has been published by Dr. M. JORDAN, _Das

Malerbuck des L. da Vinci_, p. 89; his reading however varies

slightly from mine.]

Industry and thoroughness the first conditions (491-493.)

491.

WHAT RULES SHOULD BE GIVEN TO BOYS LEARNING TO PAINT.

We know for certain that sight is one of the most rapid actions we

can perform. In an instant we see an infinite number of forms, still

we only take in thoroughly one object at a time. Supposing that you,

Reader, were to glance rapidly at the whole of this written page,

you would instantly perceive that it was covered with various

letters; but you could not, in the time, recognise what the letters

were, nor what they were meant to tell. Hence you would need to see

them word by word, line by line to be able to understand the

letters. Again, if you wish to go to the top of a building you must

go up step by step; otherwise it will be impossible that you should

reach the top. Thus I say to you, whom nature prompts to pursue this

art, if you wish to have a sound knowledge of the forms of objects

begin with the details of them, and do not go on to the second

[step] till you have the first well fixed in memory and in practice.

And if you do otherwise you will throw away your time, or certainly

greatly prolong your studies. And remember to acquire diligence

rather than rapidity.

492.

HOW THAT DILIGENCE [ACCURACY] SHOULD FIRST BE LEARNT RATHER THAN

RAPID EXECUTION.

If you, who draw, desire to study well and to good purpose, always

go slowly to work in your drawing; and discriminate in. the lights,

which have the highest degree of brightness, and to what extent and

likewise in the shadows, which are those that are darker than the

others and in what way they intermingle; then their masses and the

relative proportions of one to the other. And note in their

outlines, which way they tend; and which part of the lines is curved

to one side or the other, and where they are more or less

conspicuous and consequently broad or fine; and finally, that your

light and shade blend without strokes and borders [but] looking like

smoke. And when you have thus schooled your hand and your judgment

by such diligence, you will acquire rapidity before you are aware.

The artist's private life and choice of company (493-494).

493.

OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN THE COUNTRY.

A painter needs such mathematics as belong to painting. And the

absence of all companions who are alienated from his studies; his

brain must be easily impressed by the variety of objects, which

successively come before him, and also free from other cares

[Footnote 6: Leonardo here seems to be speaking of his own method of

work as displayed in his MSS. and this passage explains, at least in

part, the peculiarities in their arrangement.]. And if, when

considering and defining one subject, a second subject

intervenes--as happens when an object occupies the mind, then he

must decide which of these cases is the more difficult to work out,

and follow that up until it becomes quite clear, and then work out

the explanation of the other [Footnote 11: Leonardo here seems to be

speaking of his own method of work as displayed in his MSS. and this

passage explains, at least in part, the peculiarities in their

arrangement.]. And above all he must keep his mind as clear as the

surface of a mirror, which assumes colours as various as those of

the different objects. And his companions should be like him as to

their studies, and if such cannot be found he should keep his

speculations to himself alone, so that at last he will find no more

useful company [than his own].

[Footnote: In the title line Leonardo had originally written _del

pictore filosofo_ (the philosophical painter), but he himself struck

out_filosofo_. Compare in No. 363 _pictora notomista_ (anatomical

painter). The original text is partly reproduced on Pl. CI.]

494.

OF THE LIFE OF THE PAINTER IN HIS STUDIO.

To the end that well-being of the body may not injure that of the

mind, the painter or draughtsman must remain solitary, and

particularly when intent on those studies and reflections which will

constantly rise up before his eye, giving materials to be well

stored in the memory. While you are alone you are entirely your own

[master] and if you have one companion you are but half your own,

and the less so in proportion to the indiscretion of his behaviour.

And if you have many companions you will fall deeper into the same

trouble. If you should say: "I will go my own way and withdraw

apart, the better to study the forms of natural objects", I tell

you, you will not be able to help often listening to their chatter.

And so, since one cannot serve two masters, you will badly fill the

part of a companion, and carry out your studies of art even worse.

And if you say: "I will withdraw so far that their words cannot

reach me and they cannot disturb me", I can tell you that you will

be thought mad. But, you see, you will at any rate be alone. And if

you must have companions ship find it in your studio. This may

assist you to have the advantages which arise from various

speculations. All other company may be highly mischievous.

The distribution of time for studying (495-497).

495.

OF WHETHER IT IS BETTER TO DRAW WITH COMPANIONS OR NOT.

I say and insist that drawing in company is much better than alone,

for many reasons. The first is that you would be ashamed to be seen

behindhand among the students, and such shame will lead you to

careful study. Secondly, a wholesome emulation will stimulate you to

be among those who are more praised than yourself, and this praise

of others will spur you on. Another is that you can learn from the

drawings of others who do better than yourself; and if you are

better than they, you can profit by your contempt for their defects,

while the praise of others will incite you to farther merits.

[Footnote: The contradiction by this passage of the foregoing